Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) Technologies and Agroforestry Systems (IIRR, 1992, 171 p.)

Message

Agroforestry, the land management system of incorporating crop production with tree and/or livestock production, evolved to become one of the most widely promoted tools for sustaining development in the uplands To supplement the materials used by upland development extension workers in promoting agroforestry, a group of specialists, technicians and farmers from 11 government and nongovemment organizations met at the invitation of the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction in Silang, Cavite in November 1989 to develop the Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK). In November 1992, some of the specialists, together with some farmers and an additional number of specialists and technicians, met again at IIRR to revise the ATIK.

The updated kit is handy, easy-to-understand and full of illustrations. It widely uses indigenous technologies. With this kit, it is hoped that extension workers and upland dwellers develop a better understanding and appreciation of agroforestry. The success of agroforestry as a tool for sustaining upland development, however, will depend on how this tool is introduced and implemented. Sustainable agroforestry systems can only be attained if upland dwellers are involved in the planning and establishment of such systems.

I commend all those involved in the production of this useful kit.

Angel C. Alcala Secretary Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Workshop to revise

The agroforestry technology
Information kit (ATIK)

The first workshop to develop the Agroforestry Technology Information Kit-- now more popularly known as ATIK -- was conducted by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) in its Silang Campus, Cavite, Philippines, on November 413, 1989. There were 39 participants to this workshop who came from 11 government and nongovernment organizations (GOs and NGOs).

ATIK was produced primarily for use by DENR technicians who have been implementing the Social Forestry Program nationwide. DENR conducted a nationwide survey among its staff who were involved in the implementation of its Integrated Social Forestry Program and also primary users of ATIK. A questionnaire was formulated, focused on the actual experiences of these technicians in using the ATIK and on specific revisions they proposed to rrake on the kit. A Planning Committee was created to study the technicians' proposed modifications to the ATIK, as well as to plan for the workshop to revise it. The committee was composed of For. Domingo Bacalla of DENR, For. Moises Butic of DENR, Ms. Rowena Cabahug of UPLB College of Forestry, Dr. Romulo del Castillo of UPLB College of Forestry, Ms. Remedios Evangelista of DENR, Dr. Julian Gonsalves of IIRR, Mr. Scott Killough of IIRR and Mr. Jaime Ronquillo of IIRR.

The workshop to revise the ATIK took place also in IlRR's Campus in Silang, Cavite, on November 16-21, 1992, with 45 participants representing 13 agencies. These agencies included: the Department of Environment and Natural Resources; Farm and Resource Management Institute; Southern Mindanao Agricultural Programmer Mag-uugmad Foundation, Inc.; University of the Philippines at Los Banos; Upland Development Program/Sungay Upland Farmers' Golden Harvest Association; Soil and Water Conservation Foundation; Quirino Livelihood Concept and Development Resource Center, Inc.; Winrock International; Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center; Visayas State College of Agriculture; International Rice Research Institute; and, IIRR.

In the workshop, the same process for materials production was followed. Old sheets and first drafts of new topics were presented by the authors in plenary sessions. These materials then underwent continuous improvements through the critiquing of the other workshop participants. Communication experts (writers, editors, layout and design artists) were on hand to assist the authors in revising/preparing the texts, illustrations and designs of their papers. Before the materials were prepared in a camera-ready format, they were submitted to their authors for final review and revision to ensure that the additional corrections were incorporated.

The major revisions of ATIK are the following:

A. Format

1. From a set of loose-leaf single sheets in folder/binder to six, pocket-size (4" × ?") booklets, individually classified and bound according to major topics

2. Using simple, white, ordinary bookpaper, rather than the thicker, colored and more expensive bristol board

3. Using a thick binder to hold the six booklets, instead of an individual folder for each kit.

B. Content

1. Some old topics which were found not relevant/useful from the survey were dropped from the kit.

2. Other topics were revised, focusing on the specific needs of the DENR technicians.

3. Additional, new topics were included, again to respond to the expressed needs of the technicians.

4. Many old topics - which were adapted by farmers - remained as they were.

The revised ATIK -- with its new format and content is expected to further facilitate the work of DENR's1,200 technicians in its Integrated Social Forestry (ISF) Program nationwide. Ultimately, the kit will help enable DENR's ISF's program to give the Filipino uplanders access to forest lands for a tenure of 25 years or more.

WORKSHOP TO REVISE THE AGROFORESTRY TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION KlT (ATlK)
November 16-21, 1992
IIRR, Silang, Cavite

List of participants

Authors/Resource Persons

1. Ms. Nita Abena
Veterinarian, Appropriate Technology Unit
Intemational Institute of Rural
Reconstruction (IIRR)
Silang 4118, Cavite

2. Ms. Emma Aguilar
Community Development Officer
DENR-CENRO, Barotac Nuevo, lloilo

3. Mr. Pio B. Apostol
CDA/Project Leader Patlabawon
ISF Upland Farmers Association, Inc.
Patlabawon, Patnongon, Antique
c/o DENR Region 6, lloilo City

4. Mr. Laurito Arizala Crops Specialist IIRR
Silang 4118, Cavite

5. Dr. Edwin Balbarino Field Coordinator,
Matalom Upland Dev't.
Project Farm and Resource Management Institute
(FARMI) VISCA, Baybay, Leyte

6. Mr. Carlos S. Basilio
Agricultural Administration Specialist IIRR,
Silang 4118, Cavite

7. Mr. Cristituto G. Bual
Assistant Section Chief,
Extension Services Division Southern Mindanao
Agricultural Programme (SMAP) Bago Oshiro, Davao City

8. Mr. Agustin Calanao
Farmer, NISFFAI
Nazuni Dingle, lloilo

9. Mr. Jose D. Cansancio
CDA llfiorest Community Organizer
DENR-Upland Development Program Region Xl-4A,
Digos, Davao del Sur

10. Mr. LapuAapu Cema President,
Mag-uugmad Foundation, Inc. (MFI)
3-2 Rodriguez Apartment, Pelaez St.,
Cebu City Tel. No. 220197

11. Dr. Roberto E. Coronel
Associate Professor,
Institute of Plant Breeding University of the Philippines
at Los Ba�os College, Laguna

12. Mr. Ricardo El. S. Dayrit
Specialist, Livestock Production IIRR,
Silang 4118, Cavite

13. Ms. Maxima Dandasan
Farmer UDP/Sungay Upland Farmers Golden Harvest Assn.
Sungay, Alubijid, Misamis Oriental

14. Mr. Terrence E. Davis
Extension and Training Specialist Southern
Mindanao Agricultural Program (SMAP) Department of Agriculture
Daveo City
Tel. No. 82-79767; Fax No. 82-2766

15. Dr. Reynaldo dela Cruz
Professor, Department of Forest Biological Sciences
College of Forestry, UPLB, College, Laguna
Tel. No. 94-2725J94 2773; Fax No. 94-2721

16. Dr. Zosimo dela Rosa
Associate Professor, FARMI-VISCA
Farmers' Village, VISCA, Baybay, Leyte
Tel. No. 521-2027

17. Ms. Ines Fehman
Volunteer, Appropriate Technology Unit
International Institute of Rural Reconstnuction (IIRR)
Silang 4118, Csvite

18. Dr. Pam Femandez
Agronomy Department
University of the Philippines at Los Batlos
College, Laguna

19. Mr. Rutino C. Garcia
Research Associate
Departnent of Forest Biological Science
UPLB, College, Laguna

20. Mr. Bill Granert
Managing Director
Sell and Water Conservation Foundation
P.O. Box 309, Cebu City
Tel. No. 92312/5528; Fax No. 922312

21. For. Nick Iscala
Social Forestry Department
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Vsayas Awl, Dilirnan, Quezon City

22. Ms. Aida B. Lapis
Supervising Science Research Specialist
Ecosystem Research and Development
Bureau (ERDB)
College, Laguna
Tel. No. 2269 loc. 267; Fax No. 6394-3628

23. Dr. Rodel Lasco
Assistant Professor UPLB Agroforestry Program College of Forestry UPLB
College, Laguna Tel. No. 2599/3657/2657 Fax No. (94) 32-06

24. Dr. Ulysses Lustria
Director of Extension and Assistant Professor
University of the Philippines at Los Bahos College,
Laguna Tel. No. 3358

25. Mr. Roger Magbanua Intennational
Rice Research Institute (IRRI) P.O. Box 933, Manila

26. Mr. Dominador A. Martinez
Project Director Quirino Livelihood
Concept and Development Resource Center,
Inc. Aglipay, Quirino 3403 Tel. No. 076-692-5058

27. Ms. Ophelia Q. Nate
Community Development Officer
11 DENR-PENRO
Suqui, Caiapan, Oriental Mindoro

28. Mr. Armando M. Palijon
Assistant Professor
UPLB College of Forestry
College, Laguna
Tel. No. 2599

29. Dr. Ben Parker
Institute of Animal Science University
of the Philippines at Los Ba�os College, Laguna

30. Mr. Raquelito M. Pastores
Assistant Director/Agroforestry
Specialist IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

31. Dr. Agustin Pihol
Supervising Science Research Specialist ERDB,
College, Laguna Tel. No. 2229

32. Mr. Glorioso Quihones
Farmer Liquida, Caba, La Union

33. Ms. Rosalinda S. Reaviles
Science Research Specialist II ERDB,
College, Laguna Tel. No. 2229/2269/2481

34. Mr. Gregorio D. Reyes
Chief, Science Research Specialist and Division Chief
Upland Farms Ecosystem Research Division ERDB,
College, Laguna Tel. No. 3481/2269/2229 loc. 230

35. Mr. NestorRodemo
Appropriate Technology Unit IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

36. Mr. Romeo San Buenaventura
Agroforestry Technician
IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

37. Seed Science and Technology
Division Staff Department of Agronomy
University of the Philippines at Los Ba�os College, Laguna

38. Ms. Carol Stoney
Agroforester, Winrock International
c/o ARMP, P.O. Box 290, Bogor 16001, Indonesia
Tel. No. 62 (251) 323-325
Fax No. 62 (251) 328489/325-251

39. Mr. Henrylito D. Tacio
Staff Writer Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC)
Kinuskusan, Bansalan, Davao del Sur

40. Dr. Frederico Villamayor
Professor PRCRTC, VISCA Baybay,
Leyte Tel. No. 521-2027 (Pasay Office)

Steering Committee

41. For. Domingo Bacalla
Chief, Social Forestry Division DENR,
Visayas Ave., Diliman, a c.

42. For. Moises Butic
Social Forestry Division DENR,
Visayas Ave., Diliman, Q.C.

43. Ms. Rowena Cabahug
Research Associate UPLB
Agroforestry Program College of Forestry,
UPLB, College, Laguna Te. No. 2657/3657

44. Dr. Romulo del Castilo
Director, UPLB Agroforestry
Program College of Forestry UPLB, College, Laguna

45. Ms. Remedios S. Evangelista Sodal
Forestry Division DENR, Visayas Ave., Diliman, Q.C.

46. Dr. Julian Gonsalves
Director Appropriate Technology
Unit/Communication Department IIRR,
Silang 4118, Cavite

47. Mr. Scott Killough Deputy Director Appropriate Technology Unit IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

48. Prof. Nestor Lawas Agronomy Department UPLB, College, Laguna

49. Mr. Jaime P. Ronquillo
Assistant Director
Communication Department
IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

Artists

50. Mr. Albert Ba�ez
UGSAD Editorial and Visual Arts Association, Inc.
Lincoln Bend, Parkwood Greens, Pasig, M.M.

51. Mr. Boy Belardo
IIRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

52. Mr. Ric Cantada ilRR, Silang 4118, Cavite

53. Mr. Henry Cruz

54. Mr. Mitchell Doren
UGSAD Editorial and Visual Arts Association, Inc.
Lincoln Bend, Parkwood Greens
Maybunga, Pasig, Metro Manila

55. Mr. Bemabe Remoquillo
Institute of Development Communication
UPLB, College, Laguna

Editors

56. Mrs. Lyn C. Doren
IIRR, Silang, Cavite

57. Ms. Carmenia May Magno
IIRR, Silang, Cavite
Administrative Support Staff

58. Lhai Kasala

59. Jel Montoya

60. Gigi Naval

61. Angie Poblete

62. Ariel Madlangsakay

63. Secretarial Support Services

Design and layout by Carmenia May Magno

Current program thrusts in Upland development

Human greed, abuse and misuse of the country's forest resources have resulted in the sad state of our uplands today. Resource depletion, environmental degradation, inequitable access to resources, tenurial issues, upland poverty and the continuous influx of lowland migrants into the uplands are among the current issues in natural resources management.

In recent decades, the Philippines witnessed an unprecedented commercial exploitation of the timber resources leading to an annual rate of deforestation reported to have reached an average of 119,000 hectares during the declining years of the timber boom between 1969 to 1987. From a leading exporter of precious "Philippine Mahogany", the Philippines has become a timber deficit country where the cost of a board foot of lumber is beyond the means of an average wage earner. The disappearance of forests has resulted in the loss of jobs and livelihood in neighboring communities; destructive floods and drought during wet and dry seasons, respectively; and, landslide and siltation of rivers and dams. Other consequences of deforestation have become common occurrences in many parts of the country.

Through the years, landlessness and unemployment have driven hundreds of thousands of poor families in the lowlands to migrate and eke out a living in upland areas where they have become squatters by operation of law. In many cases, these have resulted in the total destruction of remaining forest vegetation in the area. The land has become marginally productive as the top soil continues to be lost through erosion brought about by improper agricultural practices. The result is poverty and a degraded upland environment affecting not only the people who subsist in these areas, but even the poor farmenrs in the lowlands who likewise suffer from the inevitable consequences of forest destruction. Latest estimates show that as much as 8.25 million hectares are now severely eroded.

In view of these problems, the government has in recent years formulated programs directed at arresting resource depletion and environmental degradation while searching for solutions to the issues of secured access to land, poverty alleviation and increased sustainable productivity. Among the major programs being implemented by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources are the Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) in noncritical areas of the public domain that are under various forms of cultivation; the National Forestation Program (NFP) in degraded areas and in residual stands that are inadequately stocked; the Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) in newly reforested areas under the NFP that need to be maintained and cared for; and, the Community Forestry Program (CFP) in residual forest lands occupied by farming families.

1. INTEGRATED SOCIAL FORESTRY PROGRAM (ISFP)

Initiated about a decade ago, the ISFP draws strength from the DENR Upland Development Program (UDP) started by the Bureau of Forest Development in 1980 which was aimed at distilling lessons and developing methodologies for participatory management of the uplands. The ISFP incorporates the best features of three people-oriented forestry programs implemented in the 1970's, i.e., Forest Occupancy Management, Communal Tree Farming and Family Approach to Reforestation. The major features include granting longterm tenurial arrangements to qualified applicants, technical and modest material assistance and institution building.aimed at developing capability for communitybased resource management.

ISFP addresses the twin problems of Rural poverty and ecological stability in occupied forest lands. Through ISFP, forest land occupants are provided secure access to land as well as technical and material aid to make the land productive without depleting R. Secure land tenure comes through either the Certificate of Stewardship Contracts (CSCs) for individuals, or the Community Forest Stewardship Agreements (CFSAs) for community organizations. In both cases, farm families are granted renewable 25-year leases on the public land which they occupy and cultivate. In the first years of the lease, the farmer receives technical assistance for developing self sufficiency and sustainable farming practices.

The program provides assistance in the areas of agroforestry, land tenure and community organizing. Community organizing is applied to mobilize groups to obtain stewardship contracts, promote agroforestry and soil/water conservation and build local institutions. ISFP emphasizes improvement of existing farmer practices, not introduction of new ones except in situations where such may be necessary. Participatory strategies are used to gather data, diagnose field situations and monitor technical problems. Farm visits and training courses develop farmers' skills in agroforestry and organization. In the process, community leaders are prepared to take responsibilities for continued development after the end of the project, tentatively set at five years.

Recently, the implementation of the Local Govemment Code obligated the DENR to devolve to the Local Govemment Units (LGUs) the management of all ISF project sites except some of the "model sites" (one model site per province) and the UDP sites. These projects will remain under the care of the DENR for use as learning sites where new technologies and approaches are expected to be generated. These sites will also be used as training areas for LGU technicians and other development workers as part of the outreach program of the DENR.

2. NATIONAL FORESTATION PROGRAM (NFP)

In 1988, the DENR implemented the NFP which consists of three major components, namely: reforestation, watershed rehabilitation and timber stand improvement. The reforestation component is concerned with the replanting of denuded forest lands with indigenous and exotic forest species, including fruit trees, bamboos and minor forest species. One of the reforestation strategies used is assisted natural regeneration (ANR) where augmentation planting of climax species is done to improve future yield at minimum cost. The timber stand improvement (TSI) involves the removal of over-mature and inferior trees to improve growth in logged-over areas. Reforestation, ANR and TSI are approaches used in rehabilitation of identified critical watersheds and catchment areas.

DENR enters into contract with upland settler families, community and civic religious organizations, entrepreneurs, local and other government offices and other NGOs for any of the above NFP activities in areas identified by DENR. The contract may be for survey, mapping, planning, community organizing training, monitoring and evaluation or actual comprehensive site development of a given area.

3. FOREST LAND MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT (FLEA)

FLMA provides a long-term tenure to the people who plant and care for trees in newly reforested areas by granting farmers access to these areas for purposes consistent with sound ecological principles. When the reforestation contract terminates after three years, the contractor may apply for an FLMA if at least 80 percent of the trees planted are surviving and properly maintained. Family contractors must organize into associations or cooperatives covering a total of at least 100 hectares. DENR employs local NGOs to help organize communities and train them in forest management.

Like stewardship contracts under ISFP, FLMAs are for 25 years, renewable for another 25 years. The contractor may use the area to grow and harvest minor forest products or interplant cash crops, fruit trees and other agricultural crops using sound agroforestry practices. The contractor may also harvest, process and sell timber when the trees mature, following the principles of sustained yield forest management. in return, the contractor provides DENR 30 percent of the total proceeds until the whole cost of reforesting the area has been recovered. The proceeds will be deposited into a "trust fund" for expanding reforestation activities.

4. COMMUNITY FORESTRY PROGRAM (CFP)

The need to democratize access in the use of the forests and allow organized upland communities to benefit from the resource compelled the government to adopt policies that would enable communities to protect, manage and rehabilitate fragmented residual and old growth forests. CFP is emerging as a community-based approach in managing certain portions of abandoned, canceled and expired areas of Timber License Agreements (TLAs).

CFP makes upland dwellers stewards of residual forest areas. Communities are awarded 25-year Community Forestry Management Agreement (CFMA). Again, these agreements are renewable for another 25 years if mutually agreeable to DENR and the community. The community organization can harvest process and sell forest products from the area according to a management plan submitted to DENR beforehand. The plan must comply with prescribed rules and follow principles of sustained yield management.

Under the CFP, DENR assists the holder organization to set up and strengthen the community organization This includes on-the-job training in resource inventory, preparation of forest management and conservation plans and developing livelihood opportunities. For this assistance, DENR employs qualified NGOs.

ROLE OF NGOS

Through the years, the NGOs have been doing a proactive role in upland development through advocacy, training and technical assistance. However, the latter part of the 1980s offered greater opportunities for their direct involvement in the implementation of government programs such as reforestation, social forestry and community forestry. In addition to their traditional roles, the NGOs are now involved in technical work such as survey and mapping; resource appraisal and planning; community organizing; reforestation; resource management; and, harvesting, processing and sale of forest products.

A TOOL IN UPLAND DEVELOPMENT

Agroforestry is an important tool in the development of the uplands. If practiced properly, it helps promote soil and water conservation while increasing productivity and sustainability of upland farms to the benef t of the people.

There are traditional astute agroforestry practices being employed mostly by indigenous people in the uplands. The great majority of the population, however, remains in need of improving their system of farming the uplands to increase income and protect the environment.

Meanwhile, the number of people being engaged in promoting appropriate agroforestry technologies has dramatically increased in recent years. They come from national government agencies, various nongovernment organizations and, more recently, technicians of local government units to whom the upland development functions have been devolved.

This Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK) has been developed for use by these types of development workers as a quick reference. It consists of simple. illustrated technologies being used in various parts of the country. It is a product of a week-long materials production workshop among agroforestry practitioners in the government and nongovernment organizations, farmer groups and the academe.

TABLE 1. SUMMARY PROFILE OF DENR'SPEOPLE-ORIENTED UPLAND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS.

Degradation of the uplands

DEFINITION

In the Philippines, the definition of upland areas varies across sectors depending on the government agency or the kind of project involved. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) which has jurisdiction over most upland areas in the country uses the following definition:

Uplands are hilly to mountainous landscapes with 18 percent slope or greater, including the table land and plateaus lying at higher elevations which are not normally suited to wet rice unless some from the terracing and ground water exist. These are mainly classified as public lands.

ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF UPLAND AREAS

The upland areas play a significant role in the dynamic and highly interactive landscape components of a rural system. They serve as the life support system of the lowland and aquatic areas. Upland areas are of considerable importance because they contain the tropical rainforest ecosystems which are the oldest, the most productive and the most protective ecosystems on earth. An increasing population of the "poorest of the poor" lives in the upland areas. These areas are expected to absorb even more of the expanding population from the lowlands.

In the past, upland areas were covered with tropical rainforest vegetation and human population was sparely distributed Few problems existed in these upland areas

Upland areas yielded varied products which satisfied the basic needs of these human settlements. However, given an increasing human population, together with indiscriminate exploitation of the forest, the uplands have become marginal and less capable of sustaining productivity and supporting the basic needs of human society (Sajise, 1986).

As forest resources have been depleted and agricultural activities have been undertaken in upland areas, the fragile soil resources have been exploited and severe degradation of upland agricultural land has occurred.

Today, areas affected by agricultural degradation are characterized by barren denuded hills and mountains with very few remaining trees and mainly vegetated with cogon and brush. the soil is not fertile with outcropping of rocks and the presence of eroded gullies. Wild animals practically do not exist; instead, ruminant animals graze these lands.

If environmental and socioeconomic conditions in the uplands are not improved, the peace and order situation could worsen. But, properly developed upland areas can be Keys to a sustainable, socioeconomic progress for the country.

DEGRADATION OF THE UPLANDS

UPLAND POPULATION

Estimated to be 17.8 million Filipinos

- 8.5 million live in the forest
- 5.95 million tribal Filipinos
- 3.35 million lowland migrants

The marginal upland areas compose the following classes of areas:

FACTORS AFFECTING DEGRADATION OF UPLAND AREAS

Land tenure arrangements
Uncontrolled exploitation of forest, e.g over-logging, charcoal-making
Shifting cultivation or"kaingin"
Speculation/Conversion of agricultural lands
Population pressure
Overgrazing
Improper agricultural practices, e.g., (plowing) down the slope, lack of crop rotations
Inefficient use of forest products
Construction of road networks
Mining/gold panning
Land clearing for national infrastructures (dams, geothemmal plants)
Large forest/grass fires, indiscriminate burning
Natural calamity/phenomenon
Land conversion in the upland li.e., for residential lands)

EFFECTS OF DEGRADATION OF UPLAND AREA

Loss of forest cover
Soil erosion
Loss of nutrients (shortened fallow period of land resources)
Decreased agricultural yields
Flood intensification
Reduced efficiency of hydroelectric projects
Drought intensification
Decline in genetic diversity
Shift in climatic patterns
Lowered water table
Increased sedimentabon/siltation
Salt water intrusion to wafer table in coastal areas
Loss of wildlife habitat
Increased carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere (global wamming)
Increased poverty of famm families
Urban migration of salty water into terrestial bodies

Nutrient cycles in upland farms

Agroforestry aims to develop upland farms into self sustaining yet productive ecosystems. The key to this goal is an efficient cycling of nutrients within the system.

The nutrients required for plant growth consist of: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), which are all derived from air and water; the major nutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphonus (P) and Potassium (K), the secondary nutrients: Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Sulfur (S); and, the trace elements or micronutrients (around seven), which are all soilderives.

The soil-nutrient cycle operating in an upland farm can be viewed as a system consisting of stores, flows, gain, and losses.

Nutrient store:

- roots and shoots of all crops and trees
- plant residues
- soil organisms
- soil organic matter
- clay minerals (through fixation)
- soil solution Nutrient flows:
- plant uptake (via roots)
- mineralization (from plants to residues, via organisms to soil humus)

Nutrient gains:

- symbiotic, non-symbiotic fixation (for N only)
- rock weathering
- rain and dust
- organic materials from outside
- fertilizers

Nutrient losses:

- burning (for N and S)
- denitrification and volatilization (for N)
- leaching
- erosion
- harvest

Understanding these nutrient cycles is important for a farmer to be able to effectively manage them. This should also be the basis for determining what soil and water conservation measures are needed. Likewise, this should guide the farmer in a more rational use of fertilizers.

Nutrient cycle

Establishing an swcsystem

Soil erosion, which leads to low crop yield, is caused by the washing down of the soil from the slope. Erosion can be checked by putting up physical structures and live barriers across the farm conserving both the soil and the water.

1. Mark contour lines using an A-frame beginning from

2. Make the contour canals and place the dug-out soil above the canal.

3. Plant soil stabilizers (grass species) and N-fixing trees at the upper side of the canal.

4. Make a drainage canal that would run across the contour canals.

5. Build check dams along the drainage canal.

6. Dig soil traps soil within the contour or drainage canals

PHYSICAL STRUCTURES IN A SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION SYSTEM

1. Contour canal. Contour canals are constructed on farmlands where the soil is deep. They hold water longer and allow it to seep slowly into the ground, thus increasing soil moisture and draining excess water away from the field.

Contour cycle

2. Contour bunds

In the process of digging a contour canal, place the soil on the upper edge of the canal until a mound or bund is formed. (Note The soil dug out from the cane/may also be placed on the lower edge of the canal).

Contoue bund

Tamp the soil until the mound becomes firm.

The contour bund checks the rapid downward flow of water during heavy rains and the topsoil that goes with it.

3. Bench terrace. Bench terraces can be dug at the hillside. The steeper the hillside' the smaller the terraces. It is recommended that the topsoil be removed first, the terraces constructed and then the topsoil placed evenly on the terrace. The riser should slope gently to reduce erosion. A contour canal is dug at the base of the riser and a small mound of soil is constructed at the edge of the terrace to prevent soil loss.

Midport

Locate midpoints between two contour lines

Along the lower contour line, cut from the hillside a 50cm bench.

Excavate the soil above the midpoint, first in big chunks then, in finer particles.

Pile the big chunks of soil on the 50-cm bench to form a mound, the height of which should be level with the midpoint. This will become the riser, which should be sloping, not vertical.

Construct a contour canal below the riser.

Midport

4. Contour hedgerow. The simplest soil erosion control structure for a hillside is a contour hedgerow.

Plant the contour bunds with multipurpose shrubs/trees in a triangular form Planting napier grass on the hedgerow is not recommended because they compete with other crops for soil nutrients.

Plant napier grass or creepers on the riser to stabilize it

Grass

5. Check dam. This is a simple structure that can stop gully erosion by slowing down water flow.

In the drainage system, drive stakes into the ground, perpendicular to the water flow. Gliricidia makes an ideal "live" peg if it is available. The cuttings will grow and form a permanent living barrier.

Weave split bamboo strips between the pegs and place bush or stones against the dam's upper side. Periodically, clean the area above the dam.

Begin constructing dams from the top portion of the drainage canal. The steeper the slope, the closer together the dams should be.

Fence

6. Soil trap. The purpose of this structure is to catch soil carried by water in a canal or gully. The pit should at least be 0.8 m deep × 1.0 m long × 0.5 m wide in a drainage canal. Clean the pit periodically and spread the soil on the farm Soil traps should be placed about 1 m above the dam.

Soil trap

In fames where zero or minimum tillage is practiced (rocky or heavy limestone areas, steep slopes or where there are plenty of tree roots as a result of bush farming), digging of contour canals may prove to be difficult. Other alternative structures can be built.

1. Drainage/diversion canal. This canal will catch water coming from above the farm and throw it off to a nearby gully. The size of the canal should be enough to accomodate the volume of the water.

Dig from the uppemmost portion of the farm, sloping gradually across the farm at about one percent grade.

Place the excavated soil on the lower portion of the canal to form a mound or bund.

Rockwalls

2. Rockwalls. in areas where rocks are abundant, rockwalls are appropriate.

Along the contour line and above the contour stakes, cut the hillside. This is the base to hold the stones.

Pile the stones, putting the bigger ones on the base.

If enough stones are available on the farm make the height of the rockwall level with the midpoint (of the contour lines).

Plant hedgerows of multipurpose trees at the base of the rocks. These will stabilize the rockwall and will also serve as a forage source.

Rocks

Farm management practices that reinforce SWC

1. Crop rotation

2. Relay planting

3. Contour cultivating and planting

4. Use of organic matter

5. Laying crop residues along the contour

6. Diversification of farm enterprises, including tree crops

7. Maintenance or establishment of forest at the upper end of the slope

8. Protection of the land with cover crops during fallow periods

9. Animal confinement

FARM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES WHICH REINFORCE SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

1. Use good crop rotation practices. Alternate grain crops with legumes whenever possible.

2. Practice relay planting of the second season crop. Sowing the second crop while the first is still growing helps reduce demand for soil cultivation. Relay planting also serves as an effective soil cover following the first harvest.

3. Always cultivate and plant crops along the contour. This impedes water flow between more solid structures, like rockwells or living hedgerow barriers.

4. Incorporate all available organic matters (crop residues, animal manure, etc.) into the soil. This helps improve soil structure, fertility and moisture holding capacity. Do not bum crop residues.

5. Lay additional crop residues, twigs and other materials in contour lines or spread or mulch across the slope, to further impede water flow. These lines can be placed at the base of contour hedgerows or rockwalls.

6. Diversify farm enterprises to include more tree crops. Fruit or estate crops can be planted in small orchards or interspersed with food crops. Tree crops are particularly suitable on severely sloping land.

7. Maintain forested areas at the upper end of sloping farmlands. These forested plots or woodlots should serve both a protective or conservation function as well as provide a steady source of fuelwood, food, income and other useful products.

8. Protect the land during fallow periods. Use effective mulches on cover crops to protect the soil surface from intense sunlight, wind erosion and the occasional unseasonal rains.

9. Stall-feed or tether all animals. Free-grazing animals which roam farmland during off seasons can be one of the major causes of erosion in hilly areas. Stall-feeding also enables collection of manure for soil fertility management.

Traditional soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies

Traditional soil and water conservation (SWC) measures were pioneered by the natives and/or ethnic groups found mostly in remote areas of the uplands. These upland areas have long established settlements and have been practicing these technologies for centuries, even before the advent and popularization of modem technologies. These technologies, rooted on sociocultural and religious beliefs, had been developed over many generations and had passed the test of time.

GEN-GEN -- CONTOUR COMPOSTING

Gen-gen refers to a bank or barriers of turf trashes and or earth constructed to control or confine water or prevent passage especially of something undesirable. It is an age-old practice among mountain cultivators in the Cordillera (Ikalahans) as well as the Caraballo and Sierra Madre mountains. This hillside structure is one way of controlling sheet erosion and in sustaining valuable soil nutrients. it combines terracing and composting, thus effectively breaking-up runoff flow and traps eroding soil.

Procedure

1. The land is first cleared. of scrub vegetation and grasses (construction of gaik or fireline).

2. Trashes are collected and piled at intervals in shallow trench (gen-gen) dug along the contour lines to serve as check for surface runoff and soil erosion.

3. Dirts and weeds taken out during weeding operations and crop refuse after harvests such as vines of sweet potato and ubi tops not required for replanting are piled from time to time on strips.

Gen-Gen - contour composting

4. The land between the gengen(an alleyway) is cultivated and flattened over a period of time and the gen-gen develops into contour paddies.

Usually, sweet potato is planted in a quincunx manner so as to minimize soil erosion and to prevent the fommation of small gullies between the hills of the crop; other crops like pigeon pea are also planted along the trench (gen-gen) itself.

On the average, the swidden/farm is used for four years before it is abandoned. The mean fallow period totals six years, completing a swiddencycle of about 10 years.

In very steep slopes, stakes are driven into the soil to support and hold the piled trash in place.

TUDLING

This is a vegetative soil and water conservation practice of the Batangueffos which aims not only to control soil erosion but also to encourage bench terracing in the field. Essentially, the fammer's choice of the practice in the area is primarily governed by the needs or demand of feeds for cattle.

Land - contour

Procedure

1. Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) seeds are sown, then slightly covered with soil on furrows moving in straight lines across the field without regard for the contour of the land.

2. The seeds are allowed to grow with minimal management except for thinning out in areas too densely planted.

3. It may be a series of one-row strips or a band of ipiPipil in two closely spaced rows.

4. The ipil-ipil trees are cut at a certain height, usually a little shorter than a man's height and the leaves and sprouts are continually pruned for forage. Sometimes, bananas are used instead of ipil-ipil and there are cases also where the combination of the two is being practiced.

There is a practical advantage of aligning the tudling crossway rather than down the slopes because of the farmer's belief that when the forage tree species are to be poured, it is more comfortable and convenient to cut leaves walking across rather than up or down the hillside, espedally if somebody is already carrying the forage.

One limitation is the competition of the tudling species with those of the main crops, making the cultivable area or the effective area smaller.

BALABAG/BABAG OR ITSAKA

In the local dialect, the term means an obstruction (of any kind) usually oriented perpendicular to a known and recuning path so as to stop or control entry, passage, movement or, in this case, water flow.

This practice of the Naaladnons in Naalad, Cebu, primarily aims to arrest the downward movement of soil, especially after heavy rains, thus extending the productivity of the marginal slopes. In addition, the practice also improves and maintains soil fertility (considering the fertilizer trapping of the babag) particularly the organs matter contribution of the decayed wood to the soil. Balabag structures, which literally means "fence", are replaced every four to five years when the wooden stakes and poles decompose and are no longer effective in conserving the soil.

Figure

Procedure

1. Stakes of ipil-ipil are drawn to the ground until about only 0.45 meter high is left above the soil surface.

2. These stakes are established some 0.5 meters apart following the contour of the farm

3. At the base of the pegs, Leucaena poles, leaves, twigs and other debris are horizontally stacked on top of one another across the stakes uphill side to act as barriers to the downward movement of the soil.

4. As dumped branches and leaves decompose, spaces between strips flatten, which makes the entire area appear like- real terraces from a distance.

5. Upon decomposition, the branches and leaves of ipil-ipil are incorporated into the soil to serve as fertilizer.

6. Crops such as tobacco, corn or sweet potato are grown on the farm spaces or alleys between the balabag structures

CANOPY STRUCTURE AND MAINTENANCE

This involves the presence of multilayered arrangement of crops in a single area which minimizes the energy of falling raindrops or conserving water down the slope. Soil and water conservation is achieved by harvesting the crops in blocks. In addition to the yield benefits for several varieties managed separately, the harvesting of small areas leaves little bare soil exposed. If the blocks are allowed to propagate by pakad (or set down adventitious roots), the plants do not need yearly replacement and, hence, maintain a continued canopy for the duration of a cropping cycle. This is also practiced by the upland farmers in the Cordillera region.

Peasant

DAY-OG OR MULCH COMPOSTING

This is another age-old soil conservation technology by the Cordillera forest dwellers, including the Ikalahans. It involves gathering of grasses and other plant debris to be

spread over the area intended to be planted, primarily to conserve soil moisture and to protect the soil from the impact of raindrops, particularly during heavy rains. Finally, these trashes will undergo decomposition and will serve as organic fertilizer to the crop plants.

It is also practiced in connection with tree planting wherein plant debris are placed at the bottom of the holes and covered with soil before the seedling is planted.

PLANTING OF TALA GADA W (TIGER GRASS)

Some farmers in the Benguet area plant tiger grass as hedgerow species instead of leguminous species. They practice this not only to enhance soil conservation but also to generate additional income when these are made and sold as soft brooms.

Nob: Aside from these six traditional soil and water conservation technologies being described, there are still many other technologies which the upland farmers may have been practicing for quite a long time and may, in fact, have been proven sustainable. The listing and descriptions herein presented are far from complete. Inclusion of the other traditional practices/technologies in this paper was not made possible primarily because of the limitation of available literature and/or documentation on these particular technologies.

References:

Agroforestry Technology Inforrnation Kit, 1989. Agroforestry and Mangroves Project Manual RRDP.

Baconguis Jr., R. 1992. Paper presented during the Soil and water Conservation and Management Short Training Course held on May 24-June 6, 1992, UPUN, UAP, College, Laguna.

Barker, Thomas C. Shifting Cultivation Among the Ikalahans. Working Paper Series I, February 1984.

Cagampang, F.V. et. al. 1986. A Case Study of Upland Soll

ConaorvaUon Strategies In Selected Areas of the Phillipines. Temminal Report. Los Ba�os/Philippines. UPLB.

Celestino A.F. and F.P. Elliot. 1986. Hillyland Farming Systems In U. Phillppines: An Assessment, FSSRI, UPLBCA.

Lasco, R.D. and H.D. Lasco. 1992. Paper presented during the Soil and Water Conservation and Management short Training Course heid on May 24-June 6, 1992, UPUN, UAP, College, Laguna.

Paningbatan, E.P. 1992. Paper presented during the Soil and Water Conservation and Management short Training Course held on May 24-June 6, 1992, UPUN, UAP, College, Laguna.

Raminez, D.M. 1988. Indigenoua Soil Conservation Strabgl" In Phillppina Upland Farms. EAPI Working Paper. East-West Center Honolulu, Hawaii.

Rico, D. and F. Dulnuan. 1980. Indigenous Forest Dwellers in Forest Development Planning. In Proceedings of the Workshop In Agroforesty In the Phillppines. Los Ba�os/Philippines. UPLB.

Race, D. 1984. Ikabhan Penance: A Forest Dwelling Peoph's Joamey on the Ragged Terrain of Development Tropical Forests 1(1): 18-29.

Sajise P.O. 1983. Upland Fanning Systems. Paper presented at the National Conference on Research in the Uplands, Quezon City.

The Philippine Recommands for Soil Conservation, 1977.

Land management practices for improved water conservation

Water conservation is important, especially in areas where water is limited or not enough for crop production.

Land management practices that aim to conserve water in upland farms are based on the understanding of water cycle and its component processes.

THE WATER CYCLE

· Upland farms receive water mainly from rainfall.

· Some of these water enter the soil (infiltration).

· Some run over the land surface and flow out to the streams, rivers and seas (runoff).

· Water in the soil is used by crops.

· Some water in the soil move downward (percolation) and sideward (seepage) into the ground water and then also to the streams, rivers and seas.

· Water is resumed to the air directly from water surfaces, ground surfaces, etc., (evaporation) and thru plants (transpiration).

· Water vapors in the air join together to form clouds and condense to form rain.

Water cycle

TABLE 3. CYCLE SUMMARY.

The goals of water conservation strategies are to store more rain water, increase infiltration, decrease runoff, percolation and seepage and minimize evaporation. Early land preparation, cultivation along the contours, deep cultivation and addition of organic matter increase the capacity of the soil to hold water by improving the soil structure. They are best done before the onset of the rainy season. Other practices like mulching, terracing, maintenance of vegetative groundcover minimize runoff by giving more time for the rainwater to infiltrate the soil. Minimum tillage and zero tillage decreases evaporation and are more effective in storing residual soil moisture for dry-season cropping.

Organic matter sources include compost, animal manure, green manure and other organic fertilizers. Leaf litters and crop residues such as rice straws, corn stovers, rice hulls, etc., are some examples of good mulching materials.

In some areas, networks of small water holes, small farm ponds or water-impounding structures are established to conserve more water.

TABLE 4. WATER CONSERVING LAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES.

EFFECTS ON PROCESSES

Note: + (increase); - (decrease); o (no effect); '(short-temm effect)

ALLEY CROPPING

Alley cropping is a system of intercropping rows of food crops with rows of fast-growing trees or shrubs. Generally, it is practiced in areas with flat to gently rolling topography. The crop rows are oriented in an east-west direction.

Alley croping

PROCEDURE

1. Site Selection. The area to be devoted to alley cropping should have a flat to gently sloping topography and should be less productive for purely food crop production.

2. Land Preparation. After clearing and weeding the area, layout the rows of trees or shrubs and food crops in an east-west direction with the following distances: in between rows of tree crops, 5 meters; in between rows of tree and food crops, 1 meter; in between individual tree plants, 25 to 150 centimeters. Distances between rows and individual food crops shall depend on the type of plant to be grown. With use of a harrow or hoe, cultivate only the rows where tree and food crops will be planted.

3. Planting of trees and food crops. Plant trees with food crops during the planting season. Allow the tree crops to grow one full year while conducting normal farming operations on the food crops.

4. Maintenance. Conduct pruning of the tree crops in the second year, twice or every three months at 0.5 meter height. Leaves and small stems should be used as mulching materials for food crops.

BENEFITS

1. increases soil nitrogen.
2. Helps control weeds.
3. Serves as windbreaks, controls soil erosion.
4. Provides livestock feed and firewood.
5. increases available moisture by improving infiltration and reducing runoff.
6. Helps achieve higher yields over conventional cropping system.

TROUBLE-SHOOTING PROBLEMS

Common problems encountered in alley cropping are competition between trees/shrubs and food crops for sunlight, space, water and nutrients.

How to minimize competition for sunlight:

1. Orient the rows in an east-west direction to avoid shading.

2. Use of trees/shrubs that are self-pruning or can withstand frequent pruning.

3. Use of trees/shrubs that have small crown and light branching characteristics.

4. Use of trees/shrubs with leaf arrangements that permit penetration of light or those that have leafless periods.

5. Use of trees/shrubs that are shade-tolerant during their establishment stage.

6. Use of food crops that do not cast too much shade and/or are not climbers that affect the growth of trees in the establishment stage.

Figure

How to minimize competition for space:

1. Use of multipurpose trees/shrubs that produce either fodder, fueiwood or food.

2. Proper spacing of the rows of trees/shrubs to allow sufficient space for food crops.

3. With the use of plow or spade, cut the lateral roots of trees that expand to the area of food crops.

How to minimize competition for water and nutrients:

1. Use of trees/shrubs and food crops whose litter fall is easily decomposed.
2. Use of trees/shrubs and food crops that fix atmospheric nitrogen.
3. Use of trees/shrubs with root systems deeper than those of food crops.
4. Avoid using food crops whose nutrient requirements rapidly exhaust the soil.
5. Practice crop rotation and mulching.

Figure

TABLE 5. SUGGESTED TREE SPECIES FOR ALLEY CROPPING.

Legend:

1 Self-pruning and/or withstand frequent pruning
2 Small crown, light branching
3 With leafless period, leaf pemmit sunlight penetration
4 Shade-tolerant at establishment stage
5 Litterfall easily decomposed
6 Nitrogen-fixing
7 Deep-rooted
8 Fodder/forage
9 Food
10 Fuelwood
11 Lumber and other wood products
12 Medicinal

In-row tillage

INTRODUCTION

In-row tillage, or iras-iras as it is more commonly called locally, is a minimum tillage system where only about 60 percent of a field is cultivated. It is practiced in Southern Cebu where hillside farms are of heavy limestone (rocky and dry). the technology is also especially applicable to easily erodible areas, i.e., steep to moderately steep slopes. It is not suitable in unstable and loose soils. The iras-iras minimizes erosion, at the same time gradually builds up the soil and ultimately increases yields.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure a contour baseline on the upper portion of the farm using an A-frame. Develop this line into a contour drainage canal, thick hedgerow or rockwall to protect the lower portion of the Farm from runoff water.

Constructing the rockwall on the contour baseline

2. Measure 100 cm below the baseline and lay out a contour line using an A-frame.

3. Below the contour line, dig a furrow, 40-60 cm wide and as deep as possible.

Marking the contour line and digging the furrow

4. Loosen but do not remove the in the furrow. Remove rocks and place them on the lower side of the furrow.

5. Tamp the soil on the lower side of the furrow.

6. Measure 1 m below the preceding contour line and construct a second furrow as in step 3. Then, develop three more furrows down the slope following the steps previously indicated.

7. Eighty (80) cm below the contour line of the fifth furrow, make another SO cm-wide furrow and develop it into a thick hedgerow or rockwall to further stabilize the hillsides.

8. Repeat procedures 2-7 until the whole farm has been covered.

9. Plant the main crop on the furrows. The uncultivated spaces in between should be planted with cover crops to stabilize them. (Important: organic fertilizers on the furrows two to three weeks before planting.)

Recomended measurements

MAINTENANCE OF IRAS-IRAS

1. Replant gaps in the hedgerows and repair damaged rockwalls.

2. Replant uncultivated strips between furrows with cover crops to prevent soil from falling into the furrows.

3. Before the iras-iras becomes stable, the soil keeps moving downward. It is necessary to widen furrows. Spread the soil that accumulate on them.

4. Do not pull the weeds that grow as this will loosen the soil and stones on the strips. Just cut the weeds close to the ground.

5. Use the cut weeds and crop wastes/residues as mulch to help preserve the soil moisture.

Making an A-frame

One does not need to have expensive soil surveying equipment to locate the contour lines of the land. The Aframe is a simple and practical instrument, which can easily be made by the farmer using locally available materials.

Trees and a peasant

The steps in making the A-frame are as follows:

1. Secure the following materials:

· 3 wooden or bamboo poles with a 1.5 inch diameter (2 of which should be 2.1 In long and one about 1.2 m)

· sturdy string for tying or nail

· a rock about the size of a fist or any similar heavy object object

2. Tie or nail the two longer poles at one end, about 10 cm from the end. Make sure they are securely fastened. These will make the legs of the A-frame. Make notches on the points of contact so that the poles will not slip.

3. Spread the legs and brace with the shorter pole to make a figure "A". Tie or nail the crossbar (about 10 cm from each end) to the middle of the legs of the "A". The crossbar will support the legs of the frame and will serve as guide in making the level ground position.

4. Tie one end of the string to the point where the two legs of the A-frame are joined.

Measurements

5. Tie the other end of the string to the rock or any object for weight. The rock should be heavy enough so that when it is suspended, it will not sway with the wind. The rock should hang about 20 cm below the crossbar.

Child Measuring

CALIBRATING THE A-FRAME

1. Locate a reasonably level ground and place the A-frame in an upright position. Mark the spots where the legs (A and B) touch the ground. Then mark the crossbar where the weighted string passes it.

Mark 1

2. Reverse the position of the Aframe's legs such that leg A is exactly on the same spot where leg B was and vice-versa. Again, mark the crossbar where it is crossed by the string.

Midpoint

If the two marks exactly coincide, this means that you have found the midpoint on the crossbar and that the A-frame is standing on level ground.

If the two marks are separate, make another mark at the midpoint between them.

3. To check the accuracy, move one leg around until the string passes the level point of the crossbar. Mark the point where the adjusted leg touches the ground. Reverse the placement of the legs of the Aframe. If the string passes the same point, the level position has been located.

4. Check calibration from time to time.

MARKING THE CONTOUR LINES

1. Cut tall grasses and remove other obstructions so that you can move about easily. Two people will make the work much faster and easier. One will operate the A-frame while the other marks the located contour lines.

2. Begin near the highest point. Drive the first stake at the boundary of the area and position the left leg of the A-frame beside and just above it.

3. Adjust the right leg such that the weighted string passes through the midpoint of the crossbar. (This means you have found the contour.) Mark this point by driving another stake just below the right leg of the A-frame.

4. Move the A-frame to the right by placing the left leg on the spot where the right leg previously was. Adjust the other leg again until the string passes through the midpoint mark. Again, mark this with a stake. Follow this procedure until you reach the other side of the field

5. Repeat steps 24 until you reach the bottom of the hill. The vertical distance between contour lines should be 1.5 m (the actual distance varies with the slope of the hill), which can easily be determined as shown in the figure on this page

Height

6. After the contour lines have been determined, some of the stakes will be astray from the general curve of the contour line.

Controlling Cogon and Talahib

Decades of continuous slash-and-bum cultivation and other inappropriate agricultural practices, especially in upland hilly to slightly rolling farms, have resulted in rapid land degradation due to soil erosion. Consequently, hundreds of thousand hectares of formerly productive famlands have become barren and unproductive. These farmlands are usually abandoned or left in fallow. Two common weed species -- cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and talahib (Saccharun. spontaneum) - tend to dominate these abandoned or fallow areas. These two weed species are considered by farmers to be indicators of poor soil fertility - hence, poor farm productivity.

Four techniques found effective in controlling cogon and talahib are the following: hapi-hapi, an indigenous technology from the Visayan region; roll-over method; slash-mulch-plant method; and, planting of fast-growing multipurpose nibogen-fixing trees.

HAPl-HAPI

Hapi is a Cebuano term which means "to press or to crush. It has been loosely translated into hapi-hapi to mean to crush standing cogon by using a piece of wood. The hapi-hapi technology is designed to disturb and slow down the growth of cogon while a mantle of kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) is established and allowed to grow nominally and shade out the cogon.

Simple Steps and Guidelines for the Hapi-hapi

Peasant throw seeds

1. Broadcast kudzu (Puerana) pods or seeds over the cogonal area. About 2-3 kgs of seeds or 5-10 cans of pods are needed per hectare.

2. Prepare a plank measuring 2 meters long, 10 cm wide and 5 cm thick. Locally available materials -such as coconut trunk or any straight and round pole - can be used.

3. The kudzu plants usually start twining over the cogon six months after broadcasting/seeding.

At this stage the first stage hapi-hapi is done using the wooden plank. This is carried and dragged over the standing cogon forcing it to lodge (hap/). At the same time, step on top of the plank from end to end to exert more weight which will crush the vegetation.

Peisage

4. Perform the hapi-hapi, preferably in the morning or late afternoon. The first hapi-hapi disturbs and slows down the growth of cogon so the kudzu can grow faster and creep over the cogon This retards the regrowth of cogon; whereas, if you cut the cogon with a sharp sharp the regrowth is much faster. By employing hapi-hapi, the creeping kudzu has a competitive advantage over cogon, hence better growths

Figure

5. Do the hapi-hapi at least twice. It is highly recommended to do the second hapi-hapi when the cogon has started to rise again and when the kudzu is on its peak of vegetative growth (usually in the months of May-June after they have produced seeds).

Figure

6. Four to five days are required to practice hapi-hapi on a 1hectare farm.

7. Broadcasting kudzu pods/seeds followed by hapi-hapi in cogonal areas restores soil fertility thus, improves the growth and yield of coconut trees and other plants with economic values.

Peasant thanking God

Considerations/Options:

Establishment of Kudzu in Slightly Rolling to Hilly Cogonal Areas

1. The farmer may cultivate a portion (0.5 sq m) randomly scattered throughout his parcel and drill the seeds.

2. Farmer may broadcast kudzu pods or seeds first then burn the area. This will also hasten kudzu establishment followed by hapi-hapi when cogon and kudzu are vigorously growing.

3. Stony areas (with big rocks) - Hapi-hapi would be difficult but adjusting the length of the wooden plank would solve the problem. However, broadcasting kudzu on this kind of land would still suppress cogon; but, it takes time

Use of Other Creeping Vines/Legumes

Farmer may try other creeping vines/legumes that thrive in the locality or have competitive ability with cogon.

Use of Leguminous Tree Species and Other. High value or Shade-tolerant Crops in Between Coconuts

This can be done after two years when kudzu has completely shaded out the cogon. Establish your crop following the contour.

ROLL OVER METHOD

With the use of this method, a slopy cogonal-talahib area with growth density ranging from 60100 clusters/sq. R. (at 5-20 strands per cluster) can have a decreased reemergence from 8040 percent. Runners underneath the soil decay one month after the rolling activity. Rolled over grasses decompose or dry up to as much as 90 percent in a month's time It takes more than six months for the regrowth to reach population density to as much as it was before. Rolling-over can be used to clear an area for planting or for other purposes.

Procedure

Take a tree trunk heavy enough to press down the grass. With the force and weight of the body on one foot, roll the tree trunk towards the direction where the grasses are inclined.

Peasant with a bamboo stick

A bamboo about 6 inches in diameter and 6 feet long can also be used. Tie the bamboo with a rope 2 feet from both ends. Hold the rope with both hands. With the weight of the body at one foot, press the grasses to the ground. Lift the bamboo and press it again, repeating the procedure until the whole area to be rolled over has been thoroughly pressed.

SLASH-MULCH-PLANT METHOD

Marginal lands with profuse cogon and talahib growth which are difficult to plow can still be used for beneficial crops like beans, cowpeas, eggplant, tomatoes and rootcrops. This method also prevents erosion due to the presence of the mulch.

Working hardly

Procedure

1. Slash the cogon and talahib to the base and spread them as mulch over the cleared area.

2. Dig holes at distances the crops so require.

3. Remove grass roots or runners from the dug holes. 4. Plant the vegetable seeds or the seedlings.

PLANTING OF FAST-GROWING
MULTIPURPOSE/NITROGEN-FIXING TREES

The trees take about three years to grow before density of grasses is kept at a minimum for other plants to thrive. Plant tree species that can compete well with reemerging grasses previously cut prior to tree planting. Choose also fast - growing trees with high - shading capacity. Aside from controlling the growth of cogon and talahib, the trees also help regenerate the soil.

Procedure

1. Locate the contour lines with the use of an A-frame.

2. Cut cogon/talahib along contour lines 1 meter wide.

3. Dig holes for seedlings and remove the runner or roots of the grasses from the dug holes.

4. Plant tree seedling at 1 meter distance or as desired.

5. During the first year, ring-weed trees to about 1 meter diameter to facilitate growth and minimize competition with regrowth of grasses.

Measuring and working

Use of derris as botanical pesticide

Derris

Derris elliptica, commonly known as Tubli, Tibanglan, Tiba-lau, Malasiag, Bauit or Tugleng Pula, is a bushy leguminous vine usually found growing near river banks or streams. The dark-green compound leaves usually have 9-13 sword-shaped to oblong leaflets with pronounced pointed tips.

The roots of Tubli contain rotenoids, a highly potent insecticidal chemical which is widely used for the control of a variety of insect pests in the home, on domestic animals and on the field. It is also widely used as fish killer. On field crops, it has a short (3-5 days) residual toxicity and the residues are non-toxic to man.

SELECTION OF PLANTING MATERIAL

Twist the roots of Tubli plants and observe the amount of milky sap that oozes out. Get stem cuttings only from whose roots contain a lot of sap since potency has been associated with sap content.

PROPAGATION

Tubli is easily propagated using 10-30 cm mature brown stem cuttings with 1-3 nodes and at least 5 mm in diameter. Plant the cuttings in sand or well drained top soil, either in plastic bags or in mist beds.

When rooted directly in plastic bags, place them in shaded locations and spray with water at least 3 times a day. Fitly to sixty percent of the cuttings will root successfully. The plants will be ready for transplanting in 34 months.

Rooting can be increased to almost 100 percent if the cuttings are allowed to root for at least 45 days in mist beds prior to bagging.

PLANTING

Tubli grows best when grown in unshaded areas. It is planted from 0.3-1.0 m apart, either in between perennial crop rows as a cover crop or as part of a contoured vegetative terrace. Plant at the start of the rainy season.

CARE AFTER TRANSPLANTING

Tubli is a relatively slow grower and will need frequent during the first year. Irrigation improves plant growth. Though it is N-fixer, it will benefit from the application of 50 and 100 9 14-14-14 during the first and second years, respectively.

HARVESTING

Tubli roots can be harvested 4 months from transplanting although the highest root yield per plant is attained at 1.5-2 years from planting. Early harvesting is suggested in areas with deep soils to forestall the development of deep roots which are difficult to harvest.

PROCESSING

Tubli roots can be dried, powdered, then mixed with clay (kaolinite) at a ratio of 1:4. The mixture can be dusted directly on plants stored in sealed, black plastic bags for future use.

For spraying, freshly harvested roots are crushed finely and suspended in water at the rate of 40 9 fresh roots per 20 l water. Spray Derris extract only after 5 p.m. to maximize toxic effects. The solution can be used as shampoo for animals to eliminate fleas and ticks.

For the elimination of trash fish, a jute bag containing about 1 kg of crushed root is immersed in the pond.

Note: The above rates are tentative and should be adjusted depending on the original toxicity of the roots and the type of pest.

Fire control in the uplands

Fire is a major hazard during the dry season in newly established plantations, especially if located adjacent to cogonal areas. The presence of dry weeds and cover crops in a plantation during the dry season increases the possibility of fire. Aside from intentional sabotage, a carelessly thrown cigarette butt can easily cause a major conflagration in such areas. To minimize the possibility of fire from within the plantation, incorporate the dry grass or cover crops thru cultivation.

NATURAL FIRE BREAKS

Any area free from vegetation will deter the spread of fire. Examples of these include streams, canals and roads. The removal/minimization of vegetation beside these natural firebreaks during the dry season will increase their ability to contain a fire.

FIRE LINES

These are 10 m wide vegetation-free strips usually established at the borders of the plantation and at given intervals inside the plantation. Fire lines at the borders can be established using tillage equipment or by controlled fires started during the early part of the dry season. The second option is quite risky and should be done by experienced personnel.

Fire lines and natural fire breaks are the first line of defense in case of fire spreading from nearby areas. People should be stationed at the outermost fire lines, ready to beat off the small fires being initiated in the property by sparks coming from the conflagration.

COUNTER-FIRE

If a major fire is detected early enough and if the wind changes direction towards the fire, a controlled counter fire can be initiated outside the borders of the plantation so that it will spread towards the major fire. The spread of the major fire towards the plantation can be effectively stopped in this manner. The counter-fire can also be initiated on the upper slopes of a hill on the other side of which is the spreading fire.

Counter-fire

Cultural management of pest infestation

Watching somewhere

An integrated approach to pest management where the role of pesticides is minimal is possible when the farmer is aware of the biology and environmental responses of key organisms in the farm ecosystem.

Cultural management practices, if applied properly, can help prevent pest breakout. Improper or non-application of specific cultural management practices may predispose the crops to pest infestation. The objective is to create a microenvironment in the farm which favors the crop and deters most pests.

SITE SELECTION

1. Rainfall. The distribution of rainfall affects pest populations. For instance, the coffee berry borer problem is difficult to control in areas with well-distributed rainfalls primarily because the spread-out harvest period allows overlapping generations of this pest. And, the mango anthrachnose problem also makes mango cultivation difficult in such areas.

2. Humidity. One of the reasons why scales are not a problem during the rainy season is the proliferation of entemogenous fungi which parasitize the scale insects. Coffee rust is also inhibited in humid areas. However, most other fungi and bacteria thrive in humid locations.

3. Temperature. The incidence of citrus scab increases with elevation. In contrast, the coffe rust pathogen becomes more destructive in the lower elevations.

4. Soil pH. Acid soils have been associated with increased incidence of Panama wilt of banana and abaca.

5. Drainage. Waterlogging predisposes the plants to root rot pathogens. The high humidity in waterlogged banana plantations predisposes the plants to leaf pathogen infection.

6. Location. It is wise to avoid planting in areas where major diseases of the choice crop species abound. For example, planting citrus in the general Batangas area would be tantamount to committing suicide because of the endemic citrus pests and pathogens (viruses) in the area. The same goes for the ring spot virus of papaya which is already endemic to the Laguna, Batangas and Cavite areas.

STANDING VEGETATION

The current vegetation in an area targetted for planting with perennial crops should be evaluated in terms of alternate host potential. For example, wild Heliconia are alternate host plants of the pineapple mealybug. This is particularly important, especially if the standing plants are old ones scheduled for replanting. In such cases, the inoculum load (disease incidence) should be considered before deciding on specific planting materials.

VARIETAL SELECTION

If possible, use resistant cultivars. For example, saba banana is practically immune to the corn weevil. The S 795 and S 288 arabica varieties are highly resistant to coffee nust.

NURSERY PRACTICES

The nursery should be isolated from potential sources of inoculum. Seed bed media should be sterilized if not replaced regularly. The seed bed should be well-drained in order to prevent damping off.

Use pest-free propagules in the nursery. Periodic spraying with pesticides should be able to keep down the incidence of general foliage feeders and pathogens. In case of nematode infestation, nematicides should be applied to each plasticbagged seedling.

CLEARING PROCEDURES

Remove remnant stumps if crops (like rubber) highly susceptible to rots are to be planted. Burning as a method of clearing sterilizes the first 5-10 cm top soil layer and rids them of various weed propagules and soil borne insect pests and pathogens. It also eliminates infected plants.

PLANTING METHODS

1. Time of planting. Plant abaca and banana just before the rainy season so that the wounds on the propagules can heal before the wet soil condition which will favor pathogens. This is known as field-curing. This is also practiced in the case of kakawate cuttings planted directly to the field. in pineapple, slips and suckers are allowed to air-dry so that the butt end will dry up and become less susceptible to pathogens.

2. Planting density. High density systems result in greater humidity immediately around each plant.
This leads to higher black lead streak incidence in banana and greater pod rot incidence in cacao.

3. Cropping system. Theoretically speaking, it is not advisable to mix crop species which share the same major insect pests/pathogens. In some crop combinations like rubber and cacao, this premise has been shown to be true; but in other cases, like in coconut, papaya, pineapple combinations, this principle has not been verified to be operant. All these crops are attacked by
Phytophthora palmivora.

4. Tillage practices. Inter-row cultivation to control weeds in mature perennial crops is unpopular because it leads to root injury which can increase incidence of rootrots.

5. Shade management. Shade increases humidity which predisposes the plants to fungal and bacterial infestations. However, plants exposed to full sunlight are predisposed to mistle toe and insect attacks.

6. Cover cropping. Cover cropping favors hyper parasite wasp populations that attack slug caterpillars. However, they may act as alternate host plants. For example, Crotollaria is host to coffee berry borer. Some cover crop species are useful as follow crop for nematode-infested pineapple plantations.

7. Mulching. Mulching has been observed to reduce nematode populations putatively due to its favorable effect on Paecilomyces lilacinus.
However, if placed too closely on the trunk, it may enhance termite/wood beetle infestation.

8. Pruning and thinning. A major function of pruning and thinning operations is the elimination of infected organs or trees from the plantation.
Pruning thinning also help open up the canopy not only to eliminate shaded/humid pockets inside but also to facilitate the penetration of pesticidal sprays.

9. Fertilizer practices. A well-nourished plant can withstand infection/lnfestation better than weak plants. Overbearing dieback is common in many perennial crops that were not properly supported with water and nutrients. High N fertilization has been shown to reduce the effects of the shot hole borer in tea. Chlorine fertilization reduces the incidence of coconut leaf spots.

10. Irrigation. Drought predisposes plants to pathogen attack in the subsequent rainy period.

11. Harvesting procedures. The complete removal of fruits for at least three to four months in coffee and cacao plantations can control the berry borer and the pod borer problems of the respective crops. Harvesting fruits at the mature green stage and preventing the fruits from ripening in the plantation help reduce fruit fly infestation. In all crops, it is advisable to remove and burn/bury infested fruits during the harvesting operation.

Biofertilizers

The national goal of increasing production of agroforestry products is heavily dependent on the use of chemical fertilizers. This goal is difficult to attain because the country cannot produce all its chemical fertilizer requirements. Production of chemical fertilizers requires high inputs of energy. As an agrobased economy. agricultural productivity is dependent on chemical fertilizers which are mostly imported. If not for government subsidies, the use of chemical fertilizers to produce agricultural and forestry products would have been very expensive and out of reach to most farmers. The fertility of most uplands is usually poor because of nutrient losses due to high erosion rates. Nitrogen and phosphorus are two essential nutrients that are severely deficient in most uplands. These elements along with other essential nutrients can limit growth and productivity in the uplands.

In the early 80's, the country experienced the paralyzing effect of the energy crisis. The cost of fertilizers increased. This had a tremendous impact in reducing agricultural productivity. It was during that time that the country had to search for alternative technologies to replace chemical fertilizers. This search led to the use of biofertilizers.

Biofertilizers are defined as microbially-based fertilizers which are effective in promoting growth/yield of plants. Two common biofertilizers are: nitrogen-fixers and mycorrhiza. The atmosphere contains 78 percent nitrogen by volume but this is not readily available to all plants. Nitrogen gas has to be fixed by microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, etc. The fixed nitrogen is converted to organic forms, which can be utilized by plants. Thus, plants like legumes which form symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixers (rhizobia) can derive most of their nitrogen requirements from this system.

Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between the roots of plants and a fungus. The mycorrhizal fungus can improve the absorption of unavailable nutrients (e.g., fixed phosphate) which are then donated to the host plant. In addition, mycorrhiza can promote the absorption of water even under water-stressed conditions. Mycorrhiza may also produce growth hormones and control some biologically pathogenic organisms. Together, nitrogenfixers and mycorrhiza can provide the nitrogen and phosphorus requirements of plants. In addition, mycorrhiza can facilitate the absorption of other essential nutrients.

TYPES OF BIOFERTILIZERS

Two groups of commercial biofertilizers are available locally in the Philippines. The first group is made up of nitrogen-fixers fixers which are bacterial-based. These are NitroPlus containing Rhizobium effective for mung beans, peanut and soybeans; and, BIO-N which contains Azospirillum effective for rice and corn

The second group of biofertilizer is made up of mycorrhizal fungi which infect roots of the host plant where they proliferate. The fungus increases the absorption of nutr ents and water, produce growth hormones and serve as biocontrol for pathogenic soil borne organisms. The mycorrhizal technologies are divided into five groups: MYCOGROE, MYCOBEADS, MYKOVAM-1, MYKOVAM-2 and Direct seeding Blocks (DSB). MYCOGROE and MYCOBEADS are effective for reforestation using pines, eucalyptus and agoho. MYKOVAM-1, MYKOVAM-2 and DSB are effective for agricultural crops, fruit trees and reforestation species.

These products are commercially available from BIOTECH, UP Los Bathos, College, Laguna. For more information, inquire directly from BIOTECH.

Selection of cover crops

Cover crops are plants which are grown to cover and protect the soil. They help add fertility, improve soil structure and water retention and have a lot of practical benefits such as animal fodder, food and added farm income.

Cover crops can be used in a variety of ways in agricultural systems:

1. Interplanted or relay-planted with maize or other grain crops

2. Planted alone in the cropping cycle

3. Planted under trees in orchards or plantations

4. Planted as a fallow crop when the land is being rested

Note: For suggested species suitable to the above systems (1-4), please refer to accompanying table under systems applicable.

Cover crops offer farmers the following benefits:

1. Improved soil fertility through the addition of significant amounts of nutrients (more than 200 kg N/ha)

2. Suppressed weed growth

3. Reduced labor demands in soil preparation and in weeding

4. Reduced cost of inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides and hired labor

5. Improved soil structure: cover crops can provide up to 30 tons of organic matter per hectare. Improved soil structure means a better medium for plant growth; in addition, it improves the soil's ability to retain moisture during dry periods.

6. Soil and water conservation: cover crops help reduce erosion by protecting the soil surface for extended periods of time.

7. Rehabilitation of degraded marginal lands

8. Additional benefits: human food, animal forage, fuelwood and an added source of income

There are many plants which can be used for cover crops, depending on local conditions (rainfall, soils, local farming practices) and the objectives of farmers. However, most of the cover crops belong to the family of plants known as Leguminosae (beans).

The following general characteristics are considered important in selecting plants for use as effective cover crops:

1. Rapid, prolific growth habit

2. Ability to fix significant amounts of nitrogen

3. Tolerance to a wide range of soil conditions (poor fertility, texture or structural qualities, extremes in pH, etc.)

4. Good drought tolerance. This is an especially important factor since most of the green manures are grown during the dry season.

5. Seed availability or the ability of the plant to produce its own seed locally

6. Shade resistance, since cover crops are frequently interplanted grown in relay with taller grain crops or trees

7. Proven pest resistance

8. Easy to control. Cover crops must be readily removed from the farm when the time comes for land clearing.

Potential problems with cover crops:

1. Cover crops can be difficult to establish and farmers often perceive them to require extra work. Some farmers have been concerned that cover crops might compete with their staple crops.

2. Some cover crop species can be very aggressive and may be difficult to eliminate from the farm

3. Cover crops can become an alternate host to pests which attack food crops.

4. Rats and snakes may hide in the dense foliage of cover crops.

In general, the most popular cover crops are indeterminate (continuously produce flowers and pods), single-season legume species. However, perennial species can be of great value under certain circumstances; determinate bean species and even tuber crops such as camote can be used as effective cover crops. Some of the cover crops which have been used successfully by farmers are shown in Table 9.

There are many other species of plants which have been used traditionally by farmers to serve the same purpose as the above-mentioned cover crops. Many of them are as yet undocumented. Additionally, there are other plants which could also be used. Cover crops are gaining attention from farmers and agricultural scientists and they deserve much more field trials and research.

TABLE 9. SELECTED COVER CROPS.

Batao in the upland. Cropping system

Figure

· Batao (Lablab purpureus) or hyacinth bean and com are planted simultaneously at the same hill at the stab of the rainy season.

· Plant population -- 53,333/ha for corn and 5,926/ha for batao

· Batao is planted in hills together with corn so that:

- they will not be damaged during inter-row cultivation;

- no com row is sacrificed for a batao row; and,

- batao can use corn as pole.

· Corn intercrop is managed in the same way as monocrop corn except during harvesting
Harvest only the corn ears. Leave the corn stover to serve as support for the batao.

· Corn stalk can support the batao until its flowering and pod formation. Batao bears more pods when propped than when allowed to grow prostrate on the ground

Batao plant

MANAGEMENT OF BATAO CROP

The first harvesting of green batao pods can start about three weeks after the corn harvest (grain). Harvest the green batao pod every week. There could be 5 to 6 primings or a total green pod harvest of about 2.5 t/ha

Allow the last priming to mature as seed source.

MANAGEMENT OF BATAO HERBAGE

Fodder. After the harvest of pods, batao herbage can be used as fodder for cattle in summer when feeds are scarce.

Green manure. Allow batao to grow beyond the summer period to achieve rapid regrowth at the onset of the rainy season.

Before land preparation for the next crop, either chop the vines with a scythe right on the field or collect and chop them with a mechanical chopper. Vines can also be chopped manually using bolo and chopping board. Chop to a length of 15-20 cm so that it would not hamper the plowing operation.

Working

IMPORTANCE OF BATAO HERBAGE

Spread the chopped herbage on soil surface.

Incorporate the herbage by plowing.

Figure

Note: Other than batao, alternative legume species could also be used, such as winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonalobus). However, it should be planted three weeks after sowing the corn.

Increasing the woody contents in leaf litter

In the woods

In the natural forest, most available nutrients are stored in plant materials. But in cultivated areas, where usually the amount of water from the rain is much more than the rate of evaporatranspiration, there will always be excess water. This water will cause a high rate of erosion and runoff, taking much of the highly soluble nutrients and will also leach nutrients out of the soil. In this situation, it becomes very difficult for nutrients to be stored.

The solution is to keep the nutrients in the plants and attach to it a vigorous nutrient recycling process. One often overlooked aspect in soil and water conservation is the role of lignin in organic matter, which really is a key issue to look at.

Plowing or tilling is actually one of the cardinal sins. The need to plow is a sign of the lack of lignin in the soil. It is the lignin contained in organic matter, especially twigs and stems, which improves the soil structure and determines the porosity of humus and reduces the need for tilling the soil.

There are several sources of lignin. One source is the original organic matter, that is, the cell walls of woody tissues, especially plentiful in mature plants. Another source is from the decomposition of insects that eat organic matter.

Some species that can be used for rapid fallowing are Flemengia congests, Desmodium gyroides, Cajanus cajan, Desmantus sp. These species provide a lot of stems and twigs. The twigs decompose slowly, gradually releasing the elements they are made of. Leaching is reduced while soil structure is improved. This, in turn reduces the need for tillage, the worst culprit causing erosion. The intention is to produce a great amount of organic matter from woody tissues with a high lignin content which will result in a soil that can hold more water for a longer period of time.

To balance the need for plant nutrients and organic matter, diversify plant species in the hedgerows to include species with different decomposition rates, i.e., Glincidia which rapidly decomposes and Flemengia which is slower.

It is true that, with all this wood in the soil, it is hard to weed, but it is a good idea to get lazy for a while. As long as the crops are above the weeds, it is okay. Of course, there is competition among plants for nutrients but it is also better to have many species of weeds rather than only one or two.

Note: Based on notes from a lecture delivered at the 1989 ATIK Workshop by Dr. Romeo S. Raros, Department of Forestry, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.