Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Pest/weed control Major rice insect pests, their natural enemies and economic threshold levels Pesticide poisoning Efficient and safe use of pesticides Low-cost control methods for golden snails (kuhol) Easy ''do-it-yourself'' snail collector Makabuhay, a natural pesticide for lowland rice Low-cost insect trap Weed management Weed control in lowland rice Water management for weed control in rice Using ducks for low-cost weed management

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Pest/weed control

Major rice insect pests, their natural enemies and economic threshold levels

There are about 800 species of insects in the ricefields. Of these, about 100 species attack rice and the rest are all friendly insects. Out of the 100 pest species, only 7 are major pests in Philippine rice farms.

There is a new strategy of controlling these major pests in rice. This method is based on ecologically sound practices in reducing pest populations and is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM is a pest management system that, in the context of the associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods. This is done in a manner that maintains the pest population at levels below those causing economic injury.

By thoroughly understanding a given crop, its pests and other elements of the agroecosystem, IPM tries to maximize natural pest control factors and minimize the need for outside measures like chemical pesticides. IPM explicitly means:

· use of chemicals based on need
· utilization of economic threshold levels
· use of resistant varieties
· knowledge of cultural practices
· enhancement of biological agents

IPM can help farmers increase profits and reduce health hazards and pest outbreaks by maintaining the pest-natural enemy relationship in the field. In maintaining such relationships, insecticide use is "need-based". In practice, the farmer has to know the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) for a particular pest. ETL refers to the pest population level where control measures are needed.

The information in this paper is designed as a quick guide for identifying major pests of rice and their natural enemies and to help determine the economic threshold level for each pest.

RICE BUG (L. oratorius)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

10 bugs in 20 hills

· SAMPLING METHOD

Sample early in the morning or late in the afternoon from 20 randomly chosen hills from flowering to hard dough stage. Sample twice a week.

· INSECTICIDE

Monocrotophos EC
Nuvacron USC

· DOSAGE (kg ai/ha)

0.4 each

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spray in the morning

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

WHORL MAGGOT (Hydrellia philippina)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

a. 2 eggs/hill
b. 5% whorl maggot - damaged leaves + 5% leaves damaged by chewing insects at 5 DAT

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield at 5 and 8 days after transplanting

· INSECTICIDE

Monocrotophos EC

· DOSAGE (kg ai/ha)

0.4

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spray when threshold is reached

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

STEMBORER (Scirpophaga incertulas)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

75 deadhearts in 20 hills or 2 adults or 2 egg-masses/m²

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield from tillering to panicle initiation stage

· INSECTICIDE

Chlorpyrifos EC

· DOSAGE (kg al/ha)

0.4

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spray when larva hatch

· DAMAGE

Larvae feed on leaves and leaf sheaths

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

GREEN LEAFHOPPER (N. Virescens)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

1 hooper/tiller

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield 1 to 10 weeks after transplanting

· INSECTICIDE

BPMC WP

· DOSAGE (kg al/ha)

0.4

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spray when older nymphs are present

· DAMAGE

Drief leaf tips and leaf margins orange discoloration

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

CASEWORM (Nymphula depunctalis)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

50% of the leaves are damaged. Combine the damage caused by other leaffeeding pests with that of caseworm.

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield at 2 to 6 weeks after transplanting

· INSECTICIDE

Carbaryl

· DOSAGE (kg al/ha)

0.5

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spot treatment

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

BROWN PLANTHOPPER (N. Lugens)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL)

1 hopper/tiller

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield 2 to 10 weeks after transplanting

· INSECTICIDE

BPMC WP
Buprofesin WP

· DOSAGE (kg al/ha)

0.4 each

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spray when other nymphs are present.

NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

LEAFFOLDER (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis)

· ECONOMIC THRESHOLD

LEVEL (ETL)

a. 15% of leaves are damaged before Panicle initiation.
b. 5% of leaves are damaged after panicle initiation stage.

· SAMPLING METHOD

20 random hills/ricefield at 2 to 6 weeks after transplanting watch for months

· INSECTICIDE

Monocrotophos EC

· DOSAGE (kg al/ha)

0.4

· METHOD OF APPLICATION

Spot treatment

Parasites

Predators

Pest

Host plants

Susceptible stage

Symptoms

CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR PEST CONTROL IN RICE

A cultural practice is any farm operation that will make the environment less favorable for pests to develop or multiply but which still favors rice production.

Rice ecosystems are fundamentally very stable systems but can be disrupted by inputs such as pesticides and inorganic fertilizers. There are few key pests in rice. Therefore, cultural practices, when used together with pest-resistant rice varieties, will provide adequate defense against most rice insects and diseases.

Cultural practices for rice pest management include the following:

SYNCHRONIZED PLANTING:

Since the massive introduction of rice intensification programs in the 1960s when shortduration modern rice varieties were introduced, there was room for planting rice three times a year or even five times in two years. Due to socioeconomic factors (labor shortages, market prices), staggered rice planting (i.e., non-synchronized) became unavoidable. This situation is ideal for continuous development of pests. Staggered planting with short idle intervals stimulates the build-up of BPH populations and may result in serious outbreaks of the rice dwarf virus, BPH, RTV (transmitted by GLH) and WBPH. Rice gall midge and the rice stink bug also became more serious in Indonesia because of staggered planting.

In staggered rice patterns, the generations of the pests are overlapping. There is no clear-cut fallow period (i.e., for soil preparation) between the two rice seasons. In this situation, any rice pest will build up continuously. On the other hand, in the synchronized patterns, there is a fallow period between the two rice seasons for about one month. This is the time for simultaneous soil preparation (irrigating field, deep plowing under the stubbles [ratoons] and sanitation). Most rice pests will then be destroyed.

CROP ROTATION AND INTERCROPPING (DIVERSITY):

Rotating rice with non-rice crops helps to break up the life cycle of both insects and pathogens. Continuous planting with no time for the soil to rest not only depletes its fertility but also enables pests to survive better. Intercropping (planting a second crop between rice, as in upland areas) will also reduce the spread of insects and diseases especially if the crop is very different in architecture from rice. During the growing of short maturity non-rice crops, there is no chance for rice pests to develop and they are gradually brought under control in areas where synchrony and crop rotation are strictly followed.

SANITATION:

Sanitation aims to remove all breeding or hibernating sites and sources of food of the insect or survival sites for the pathogen.

The survival stages of the rice stemborer, BPH and GLH in the ratoons are all destroyed by plowing under or burning stubble, ratoons and straw. Grasses on the dikes and surrounding areas may also be removed or cut short to disrupt the life cycles of stink bugs and the green leafhopper. In rice, intensive cultivation and wet weather do not permit drying and burning of the straw.

Straw burning is not always advisable because it destroys most of the arthropod populations that play an important role in decomposing plant remains. It also eliminates the available nitrogen in the plant remains. Nutrient loss by leaching is also much higher after burning.

When the rice plant is somewhat older, weed sanitation in the field is, of course, needed. Weedy fields may make the microclimate more favorable for insect pests than clean fields. Clean weeding may not be always advantageous for certain species of natural enemies because there may not be any shelter left for them. For example, spiders require some shelter to survive during the period between two rice crops and this may be provided by having weeds on the bunds. With respect to BPH, the sanitation program may be limited to only destroying the rice stubbles and ratoons because other grasses are not real host plants for the insect.

Fish and ducks have been successfully used in several countries to control sheath blight and insects/weeds, respectively.

FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT:

The population of many pests, such as certain aphid species, BPH, spider mites, blast, bacterial blight and sheath blight are significantly more abundant with increased nitrogen levels. The rice stemborer Chilo suppressalis and the gall midge have also been found to be significantly more abundant in fields treated with high rates of nitrogen. High nitrogen causes the rice plant canopy to become very thick. Although high nitrogen generally favors pests, it is not advisable to use fertilizers at lower than the recommended dosage, i.e., to sacrifice high yield for expected pest control. BPHresistant varieties have commonly been selected in high fertilizer environments and integrating such varieties with synchrony, rotation and other control tactics should achieve both high yield and BPH control. Unbalanced nutrients favor some diseases, e.g., low phosphate levels result in higher levels of brown spot disease.

WATER MANAGEMENT:

Water may influence the abundance of some pest species. BPH problems are known to increase when irrigated rice cultivation replaced dry rice cultivation. In Japan, insects are abundant in the humid lowlands and rice fields with standing water have been found to encourage the multiplication of BPH. In Indonesia, BPH prefers irrigated rice to upland rice. The problems are more serious in plots continuously flooded or with standing water. The green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens also seems to favor fields with stagnant water and specially those with intermittent rain as well.

Good water management should therefore help control certain rice pests. Draining the fields for about two days suppressed BPH outbreaks in Malaysia. In the Philippines, farmers withhold irrigation and plants are spread apart every few rows to help dry out the fields for BPH control. To effectively control the rice water weevil, fields are drained at the proper time and irrigation is stopped for a predetermined period. Draining the water level in rice fields destroys the eggs of BPH laid in the leaf sheaths. Deep irrigation in the morning followed by the addition of a certain amount of kerosene to water gives good control of BPH. In Indonesia, it is a common practice to raise the irrigation water level to control BPH; sand or sawdust containing 0.25 l kerosene for every 100 m is then broadcast on the raised water level and the plants are shaken.

PLANT SPACING:

The spacing of rice plants in a field is believed to influence the abundance of certain rice pests. Close spacing may rapidly increase the BPH population. Close spacing results in a more shaded, cooler and more humid microenvironment, which makes it less favorable for the development of the natural enemies of BPH. Both GLH and WBPH may also increase in closely spaced rice plants. In direct-seeded rice where spacing is much closer than transplanted rice, these pests may become more severe. Close spacing also intensifies the severity of rice diseases such as sheath blight.

Spacing should be such that it allows some sunshine to penetrate into the basal portions of the rice plants. Solar and ultraviolet radiation restrain BPH increase. More air flow also makes the microenvironment less humid and may also help the natural enemies develop. The distance between rice plants depends on the variety. Modern rice varieties with high tillering capacity may be planted further apart than those with less or moderate tillering capacity. Common spacing between rice plants is 20 x 20 cm or 25 x 20 cm.

KEY:

BPH -- Brown Planthopper
GLH -- Green Leafhopper
WBPH -- White-backed Planthopper
SB -- Stemborer
ShB -- Sheath Blight

Pesticide poisoning

The most common routes of pesticide poisoning are:

Breathing into the lungs

Skin contact

1. Skin contact -- by spilling or splashing pesticides on clothes or directly on skin. Dry materials can also be absorbed.

Wrists, armpits, neck, groin and feet are areas of the body that absorb pesticides more quickly than others. Cuts and scrapes also allow more pesticide to enter more easily.

2. Breathing into the lungs -- Dusts, sprays or fumes can enter the system by being breathed into the lungs. Poor ventilation indoor allows greater exposure.

3. Oral/Swallowing -- Pesticides are absorbed well through the mouth, stomach and intestine. Pesticides can be accidentally taken in by people who eat or smoke while applying pesticides or when improperly stored in food containers.

4. Eye contact -- Pesticides absorption and local damage can occur with eye contamination.

FIRST AID:

In Case of Skin Contact with Pesticide

1. Take off any contaminated clothing.
2. Wash skin with lots of soap and water.

Do Not Touch the Pesticide Again or Handle Contaminated Clothing.

In Case of Eye Contact with Pesticide

1. Hold eyelids open and wash with gentle stream of cool, clean, free-flowing water.
2. If with contact lenses, remove them,
3. Continue rinsing eyes for at least 15 minutes.
4. See physician.

In Case of Breathing in (Inhalation of) a Pesticide

1. Remove person from exposure to pesticide.
2. If conscious, place person in a sitting position with head and shoulders elevated.
3. If unconscious, give artificial respiration and call for medical assistance.

In Case of Oral Contact or Swallowing a Pesticide

A. Induction of vomiting only if

1. patient is conscious
2. pesticide is moderately to extremely toxic.

Induce vomiting using the following procedure

1. Sit or stand-up patient.
2. Give 1 to 2 glasses of water.
3. Tickle back of the patient's throat using a bland instrument (spoon handle). Use 2 fingers of the other hand to force the patient's cheek between his teeth.
4. Return patient to lying position-turned towards the left, neck extended.

General Management

1. Keep patient calm and at rest.
2. Keep close observation of breathing and state of consciousness.
3. Place patient in proper position.

3.1 Place patient on his left side with head lower than the rest of the body by 15 to 30 degrees.
3.2 Keep patient comfortable but not hot and sweating or cold and chilly. Maintain a normal temperature.

BREATHING:

If Breathing Stops

1. Pull chin forward to avoid tongue dropping to back of throat.
2. Roll patient on his back, keeping chin pulled forward and head back. Remove any vomitus or secretions from the mouth using a clean cloth.
3. Pinch patient's nose and blow into his mouth through a piece of cloth or handkerchief following your normal breathing rate. Alternatively, close his mouth and blow into his nose.

Make sure patient's chest is expanding with each flow. Continue until normal breathing takes place.

If Convulsion Occurs

· Insert padded gag between the teeth to prevent the patient from biting his tongue.
· Prevent further injury by placing a cushion or pad under his head and prevent him from falling.

Tips to Induce Vomiting

4 egg whites for children
8 egg whites for adults.

Efficient and safe use of pesticides

Pesticides are still widely used pest control agents against a variety of pests in rice. There are specific pesticide groups which control specific pest problems. There are insecticides to control insects, herbicides for weeds, fungicides for fungi, rodenticides for rodents, etc.

Despite their popularity, improper and careless usage of pesticides has resulted to undesirable effects on people, livestock, non-target organisms and the environment in the rice field. Accidents have also resulted during their use, transport and storage.

To avoid these adverse effects, the following tips should be followed in using pesticides:

THINGS TO REMEMBER BEFORE MIXING:

1. Read the label carefully. The label contains necessary information relevant on how the product must be used and what to do in case of poisoning.

Read the label carefully

THINGS TO REMEMBER DURING MIXING:

1. Wear gloves, safety glasses and/or masks/respirators and mix pesticides outside the house.

2. When mixing liquid concentrates with water, it is always advisable to place pesticide into the sprayer tank first before mixing with water.

Caution: If acid is used, it must be poured into the water during the preparation of the solution. Do not pour water into the acid because an explosion could result.

3. Immediately after mixing, close pesticide container tightly and keep it in a safe area not easily reached by small children.

THINGS TO REMEMBER DURING APPLICATION:

1. Never smoke or eat during the spraying operation.

2. Wear protective clothing, such as long-sleeved shirts, pants and respirators when spraying.

Never smoke or eat during the spraying operation

3. Spray pesticide diagonal to the direction of the wind not against it.

4. Do not spray during windy days.

5. Limit spray application to 3 to 4 hours only.

Do not spray during windy days

THINGS TO REMEMBER AFTER APPLICATION:

1. Wash all exposed body parts twice with soap and water; a bath would be more advisable. An alkaline soap (Perla) should be used in taking a bath, stay away from sources of drinking water.

2. Wash all contaminated clothings thoroughly with soap and plenty of water. Separate them from ordinary family laundry.

3. Do not dispose excess pesticides nor wash the sprayers in waterways (irrigation, canals, streams, rivers). Do not burn containers.

4. Dispose empty pesticide containers by burying them in suitable pits that prevent pesticide leakage into the groundwater or other bodies of water. Never burn paper packages and plastics.

Wash all exposed body parts

Low-cost control methods for golden snails (kuhol)

INTRODUCTION:

The golden snail, commonly known as kuhol (Pomacea caniculata), was originally introduced in the Philippines as a source of protein for the family. However, it has become one of the most destructive pests of lowland rice. Kuhol usually feeds on the succulent parts of the rice plant, causing stunted growth and eventual destruction of the rice plant.

Kuhol belongs to the snail family (Pelidae) that lives only in or close to fresh water in swamps and rivers in South America. When kuhol was commercially introduced into the Philippines, its possible escape was not anticipated. The natural predators of the kuhol in South America do not exist in the Philippines. Therefore, there has been no natural check against growth and reproduction.

Between 25-500 eggs, depending on breeder size, are laid in oval-shaped clusters. Eggs are laid early in the morning and evening on standing crops, along dikes and on any object sticking up above the water surface. One kuhol can produce up to 200-300 eggs/week or 1,000-1,200 eggs/month, with 80% hatchability.

Kuhol can breathe underwater like fish or in the open air. When ricefields are drained, kuhol burrows into the moist mud, digging deeper as the dry season progresses. It can sleep hidden in dry soil for over 6 months then awaken overnight when the soil is flooded.

The kuhol is a voracious plant eater. It feeds on a wide range of plants such as Azolla, duck weed, water hyacinth, rice seedlings and other succulent leafy plants and vegetables. In irrigated ricefields, the rice is most vulnerable to the kuhol during the first 2 weeks of establishment for transplanted rice and during the first 4 weeks for direct-seeded rice.

To save the rice plant from this pest, farmers tend to use commercial/chemical snail killers which are not only hazardous to human, fish and animal health, but also alter the environment and add to the farmers' expenses. Some of the chemicals used to control snails have recently been banned. (Integrated Kuhol Management, DA/FAD, 1989).

DIFFERENT CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR KUHOL:

A. BEFORE TRANSPLANTING RICE

1. Several weeks before transplanting, allow ducks to roam around the paddy field. Ducks will feed on the eggs and smaller snails.

Allow ducks to roam around the paddy field

2. Hand-pick all the larger snails not eaten by the ducks. Crush them with a mortar end pestle and feed them to the ducks. The snail meet end shells are excellent sources of protein and calcium for laying ducks.

Hand-pick all the larger snails

B. AFTER TRANSPLANTING RICE

1. Install a wire mesh screen in the water runways to prevent the eggs and adult snails from entering the paddy field during irrigation.*

Install a wire mesh screen

2. Maintain shallow water (2-3 cm) during the first 15 days after transplanting to minimize damage. One month after transplanting, allow ducks to roam the paddy field and consume the remaining eggs and snails.

Maintain shallow water

3. Construct depressed strips in the paddy where wafer will be retained when the field is drained. The snails will migrate and collect in these lateral depressions and can then be collected.

Construct depressed strips

C. PLACEMENT OF STAKES

1. Snails prefer to climb above the water level to lay their eggs.

2. Collect stakes 0.5-0.75 m long and 2 cm in diameter. Arrange them 0.5 m from the rice paddy dikes, 2-4 m apart The kuhol will lay their eggs on these stakes.

Collect stakes 0.5-0.75 m long

3. Gather the eggs, crush them and feed them to ducks, chickens and pigs.

Gather the eggs and feed them to ducks, chickens and pigs

D. RICE HULL

1. Separate coarse hulls from the fine ones with a sieve.

2. After a rain, evenly spread a 1-2 cm layer of rice hulls in the ricefield. The hulls will affect the digestive system of the snails, causing them to starve and die. Three or four days after spreading the hulls, collect the dead snails.

Separate hulls

Spread hulls

E. EAT KUHOL

The kuhol first introduced as a high protein food for human consumption, has a high nutritive value. A bite-size snail contains the following:

The kuhol also contains vitamin C, zinc, copper, manganese, magnesium and iodine. (Integrated Kuhol Management, DA/FAD, 1989).

RECIPES:

TORTANG KUHOL

1 saucer cooked ground kuhol
1 tbsp. chopped onion leaves
1 tbsp. chopped tomatoes
1 tbsp. chopped onions
1 tbsp. crushed garlic
2 tbsp. cooking oil
1/2 tsp. salt
1 whole egg beaten
1 tbsp. all-purpose flour

Put salt on kuhol then saute with garlic, onions and tomatoes. Remove from pan and mix sauted ingredients with beaten egg. Coat the mixture with flour and fry. Serve hot.

GINATAANG KUHOL

2 saucers cooked kuhol shelled
2 cups coconut milk
1 tbsp. crushed garlic
1 tbsp. chopped onions
1 tbsp. chopped tomatoes
1 pc. ginger
2 tbsp. achuete
2 tbsp. cooking oil

Saute garlic, ginger, onions and tomatoes in hot cooking oil. Add cooked kuhol to sauted mixture. Stir in coconut milk and achuete. Boil until oil comes out. Serve hot.

Note: Snails should not be eaten by humans or livestock including ducks if collected from rice paddies which have been sprayed with chemicals.

Easy ''do-it-yourself'' snail collector

Golden snail (Pomacea caniculata), a serious rice pest, can now be locally controlled at a bargain by using a do-it-yourself method of scoop and scrape snail collecting device called salaan collector.

Instead of bending or- stooping hundred of times to collect snails, the multipurpose snail picker, with its long handle, can now reach distant crawling snails and clusters of eggs, without tiresome bending.

With this simple and inexpensive picker, one can collect and dispatch snails by the thousands while they are still in egg clusters. This device, with its scorpion-shaped plate attachment, enables one to scrape eggs from walls and host plants without damaging them.

A. Snail collecting

B. Scraping eggs on walls

C. Scraping eggs on plants

HOW TO MAKE A "SALAAN" SNAIL COLLECTOR

Materials Needed:

1 pc 1 in x 1 in x 6 ft wood or bamboo pole
1 pc 2 1/2 in x 3 1/2 in gauge 20 or 22 galvanized sheet (This is roof gutter sheet gauge)
1 pc 1-2 mm mesh coconut strainer (salaan)
3 pcs 1/8 in x 3/4 in length self tapping screw
3 pcs 1/8 in x 1/2 in cap screw

Procedure:

1. Paste the pattern below onto gauge 22 sheet metal.
2. Cut sheet metal with snip.
3. Drill hole with 1/8 in diameter puncher.
4. Bend metal to shape.
5. Plane sharp edges of 1 in x 1 in x 6 ft wood to make round for greater comfort.
6. Screw salaan with wood handle.
7. Assemble finished scorpion-shaped plate into salaan.

Note: For the scorpion plate, tin can materials may be used although life span of the plate
will be shorter.

How to make a "salaan" snail collector

Makabuhay, a natural pesticide for lowland rice

RESEARCH FINDINGS SHOW THAT:

· The application of chopped Makabahay is as effective as the use of chemical pesticides in reducing deadhearts and white heads due to striped stemborer attack and in reducing the green and brown leafhopper populations.

· The aqueous extract of Makabuhay (50 9/125 ml water) is toxic to green leafhopper when applied to rice seedlings by root-soaking 24 hrs before transplanting or by spraying it to the seedlings. These treatments are comparable to root-soaking in chemical pesticides.

· The submerged chopped Makabuhay stem is toxic to the rice green leafhopper.

· The combination of aqueous Makabuhay extract root soaking and broadcasting of chopped vine is as effective as the recommended chemical pesticide seedling treatment followed by spraying with chemical pesticides 25 days after transplanting.

· Broadcasting of ground Makabuhay vine (0.25 kg/sq.m) on rice seedbed 10 days after sowing is as effective as broadcasting with chemical pesticides.

Sc. Name: Tinospora rumphii Local Names: Makabuhay (Tag., Bik., Ilk.); Manunggal (Ilonggo); Abukay (Ilk.). Palayawan (Waray)

PREPARATION AND USAGE:

Root soaking

1. Chop the vine into small pieces and pound it with the use of a mortar and pestle.
2. Add 1 liter water for every 200 9 crushed Makabuhay vine. Thoroughly stir the mixture, then soak the rice seedlings overnight before transplanting.

Ten to 15 kg of chopped vine are sufficient to treat seedlings needed to plant 1 hectare.

IMMERSION

1. Cut the Makabuhay vines to approximately 1 ft lengths.
2. Tie both ends of the cut vines onto bamboo stakes as shown in the diagram.
3. Drive the stakes into the ground along water inlets.
4. You can also put 1 liter chopped Makabuhay vines inside a fish net bag and place the bag along the wafer inlets. Replace the Makabuhay every 2 weeks. Check the bag regularly for accumulation of mud or other debris.

Tie both ends of the cut vines

Put 1 liter chopped Makabuhay vines inside a fish net bag

Low-cost insect trap

The light trap is an inexpensive tool used in monitoring insect pest populations and helping reduce their numbers. Light traps were used by many farmers before the introduction of modern rice varieties when chemical pesticides were still not generally available. The light trap can also be used in fishponds or rice- fish paddies to attract insects upon which the fish can feed. As pesticides became more common and were used to prevent damage to crop, light traps became less important.

Today, however, chemical pesticides are recommended only as a last resort because of their high environmental, health and economic costs. Therefore, pest management practices today require a greater knowledge in pest identification and a system of monitoring insect populations.

LANTERN DESIGNS:

Lanterns can easily be made from locally available materials like empty glass jars (mayonnaise jars) as illustrated below. The lantern costs from P50 (design A) to P15 (design C). It uses about P1 to P2 worth of kerosene per night and produces a bright white light.

Lantern designs

LOCATING THE INSECT TRAP:

The lantern is attached to a frame (tripod) of either bamboo or wood and is hanged above the rice crop. The frame has a platform that supports a basin of water just below the lantern. Adding some cooking oil to the water can make the insects immobile upon falling into the water.

In rice-fish fields, hang the lantern over the water in the trench at a height which is just above the dike. At that height, the light is easily seen by insects flying just above the crop canopy.

Locating the insect trap

USING THE LANTERN:

The lantern should be lit as soon as it gets dark (when insects are most attracted to light) for 24 hours. In cases where the field is far from the house, the lantern should be filled with just enough kerosene to burn for 2 hours. The lantern should be visited daily and the insects identified and counted.

NOTE:

· If the light trap is primarily intended to reduce the insect population, more than one trap is advisable.
· If the light trap is intended to monitor insect population for forecasting, 1-2 traps/ha. is enough. Check with the local technician.

The above is compiled from researches conducted by the Entomology Department of IRRI, Los Ba�os, Laguna, Philippines.

Weed management

Weed management

REASONS FOR WEED MANAGEMENT:

1. Weeds reduce yield by competing with the crop for sunlight, moisture and soil nutrients.
2. Fertilizer application in weedy fields may prove wasteful because weeds absorb the fertilizer (especially N) more effectively than the crop.
3. Weeds may serve as alternate hosts for crop pests.

LOW-COST WEED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

There are many ways to manage weeds in ricelands at little cost without having to resort to the use of herbicides. The key to low-cost weed management and high yield is prevention. Preventing weeds from growing is cheaper and easier than removing them. Some simple methods of prevention include: (1) thorough land preparation; (2) using weed-free seed or seedlings; (3) employing shade and mulch to slow down weed growth; (4) crop rotation; and (5) good water management (for lowland rice).

1. Land preparation. Good land preparation gives the crop a chance to grow ahead of the weeds. This reduces competition during the very sensitive seedling stage. Moreover, by the time the weeds start to emerge, the plants have grown tall enough to shade them out, further preventing their growth.

2. Weed-free seed and seedlings. If planting material is not kept free of weeds (or weed seeds) then the crop will have a competitor from the start of growth. In the Philippines, transplanting weeds with rice seedlings is causing losses of 16-23%. (See technology sheets on Rice Seed Production.)

3. Shading/mulching. "Let plants do the work for you." Keep a cover of economic plants on the field to shade out weeds.

· Select taller varieties of the crop to be grown.
· Increase the planting density to reduce weed competition.
· Use Azolla to effectively shade out grasses, sedges and small broadleaf weeds in (lowland rice). Use of Azolla alone can reduce weed dry matter production by 50-60%.
· Residues from the previous crop can be applied as mulch to deter weed growth (aside from conserving water and improving soil fertility).
· In fallow periods, a good stand of green manure will shade out most weeds, preventing them from setting seed.

Select taller varieties of the crop

Increase the planting density

4. Crop rotation can considerably reduce weeds. Weed population is lower when planting rice after an upland crop like mung bean or cowpea rather than when it is preceded by another rice crop. The radical differences in cultural practices between upland and lowland crops result in different species of weeds with each system. By rotating crops, weeds have less chance to establish, keeping their population down.

With continuous monocropping, weeds associated with the crop have a chance to establish themselves and increase their populations.

In areas where crop rotation cannot be practiced, levels of weed control have in the first crop affect weed population in the second. Good weed control in the first crop means fewer weeds in the second.

Another way to inexpensively control weeds is to have livestock do it for you. Both ducks and fish consume large numbers of weeds.

Most crops do not have to be kept weed-free for the duration of their growth, especially so when labor is scarce or expensive. The number of weedings can be reduced by comparing the recommended weed-free period and the time that critical competition begins between the crop and the weeds. This varies with crops and different cultural methods. For example, transplanted rice is supposed to be kept weed-free for the first 30-days after planting. However, the period when weed competition will actually reduce yields does not begin until 25-30 days after transplanting, so weeding can be reduced to one time only, that time between 20-30 days after transplanting.

Weed free period in rice crop

WEEDS ARE NOT ALWAYS BAD FOR FARMERS:

· Some weeds can be used as additional forage for livestock.
· Other weeds can be returned to the soil to increase OM.
· Allowing weeds to grow in some paddy dikes provides shelter to many beneficial insects where they stay throughout the dry season and help keep pest populations down once rice planting begins.

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Weed control in lowland rice

With no weed control measures, an average of 34% yield loss is expected in transplanted lowland rice and 45% in direct-seeded rainfed lowland rice.

COMMON WEED CONTROL METHODS:

· Land preparation
· Hand weeding
· Mechanical weeding (use of push-type rotary weeders)
· Flooding (keeping the field flooded for a period of time to control most weeds)
· Use of herbicides
· Use of azolla

General comparison of selected weed control measures

MECHANICAL WEEDER VS. PRE-EMERGENCE WEEDICIDES

If on-farm labor is unavailable and must be hired, the use of mechanical weeders will involved higher costs compared to the use of weedicides. However, the net returns will be higher if farm family labor is used to utilize mechanical weeders.

The following case study (based on farm records) compares the two methods:

Above case also illustrates that a more effective weed control scheme is one that involves a combination of two or more weed control methods.

* Assuming a weeder costs P300 and can last for six cropping seasons.

Water management for weed control in rice

Flooding rice paddies was one of the first tools developed by farmers to control weeds in rice. On farms with reliable irrigation, water. management is also one of the most effective and lowest cost methods of controlling weeds. Even for farms in rainfed or semi-irrigated areas where the need to conserve water limits the ability to manipulate water levels, water management is still an important tool in weed control.

Water management for weed control in rice

1. At land preparation

Keep the paddy field flooded after harrowing to kill weeds and to hasten decomposition. Water level should be high enough to submerge all weeds.

2. At final levelling

Final levelling eliminates any high spots in the field. Weed seeds in these high spots would be able to germinate because they would be above the water level.

In areas with good irrigation, final levelling should be done in saturated soil but with no standing water.

In rainfed or semi-irrigated areas, conserve water by maintaining water levels at 3 cm.

Final levelling should be done 1 day before transplanting.

3. At transplanting

Irrigated: The puddled, levelled field should not have standing water. This facilitates straight-line transplanting because the lines can easily be seen and assures that the seedlings will establish good root-soil contact and quickly begin to grow.

Rainfed: Paddies should be drained to facilitate transplanting unless no rain is expected -- in which case some water should be maintained in the paddies.

4. Transplanting to tillering

Paddies should be flooded 1-3 days after transplanting to prevent weed seeds from germinating. The time to flood is determined by presence or absence of Azolla (Flood 1 day after transplanting if Azolla is being used.) and establishment of the seedlings.

Water level should be 2 cm initially and increased gradually to 10 cm as the rice plants grow.

5. After maximum tillering to post-flowering

Once maximum tillering stage is over, weeds have no effect on rice yield. Continuous flooding or submergence of the field is desirable but not necessary. Water depth may vary from 3-10 cm if there is sufficient irrigation water. Where irrigation water is scarce, the objective should be to maintain at least a saturated soil once crop canopy is full enough to shade out weeds.

Using ducks for low-cost weed management

The use of ducks can complement other weed management practices in rice paddies where straight row planting is used. When the crop reaches 20 cm in height (approximately 25 days after transplanting) until the booting stage, the ducks can be allowed into the rice paddy without damaging the crop. Forty to fifty (40-50) adult ducks feeding for 3 hours a day for 3 consecutive days can weed a 1,000 sq.m area. Any species can be used but Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) are most recommended because they are more active and have light and narrow bodies.

PROCEDURE

1. Irrigate the field to a depth of 3 cm (ducks will not enter the rice paddy field without water). To encourage them to enter, broadcast a handful of rough rice into the paddy.

Irrigate the field

2. The constant dabbling or feeding and trampling by the web-footed ducks make the soil soft and muddy and inhibit the growth of weeds and at the same time incorporate weeds growing in between the rows of rice.

Dabbling

3. Broadleaf weeds and sedges are eaten by the ducks. Insects (e.g. moths or stemborers, hoppers, mole crickets, etc.) and golden snails which are found at the base of the rice crop are also eaten, thereby reducing pest populations.

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Water management/cropping patterns (introduction...) Water management for rice in drought-prone locations Legume crop rotation with rice Rice ratooning Sorjan: towards rice-based integrated cropping systems Maximizing the dry season for post-rice alternatives Watermelons in rice paddies

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Water management/cropping patterns

Water management for rice in drought-prone locations

A number of strategies exist for farmers to minimize risks and reduce losses in drought-prone and rainfed rice-producing areas. These strategies focus mainly on the following: varietal selection, timing of planting to minimize drought damage, maintenance of water level, cultural practices aimed at conserving water or improving drought resistance and altering the physical farm environment.

1. Varietal selection

· Select drought-tolerant varieties if drought is likely to occur. In general, IRRI found droughttolerant rice varieties to have long, dense and thick roots. Traditional varieties like BE-3, Peta and Intan tolerate some drought but yields are lower than modern varieties. The IRRI varieties IR6, IR46 and IR64 also withstand mild drought although IR36 and IR64 are prone to tungro disease.

· Plant very short-duration varieties to avoid the drought period entirely.

2. Timing of-planting

· Plant the rice such that the vulnerable reproductive stage does not fall during the drought season. This presupposes a regularly occurring drought in a region which the farmers anticipate and plan around.

· Synchronize planting with neighboring farmers to minimize irrigation water wastage.

Timing of-planting

3. Maintenance of water level

· It is important to provide the crop enough water to induce maximum tillering (formation of stalks) for a good cover (canopy) so that water losses by evaporation would be minimized.

· Water is essential during flowering on from 55-70 days after transplanting of the shortduration varieties. If simultaneous planting is done, 800-1,000 mm of water would be minimum requirement.

· Fields need only be kept moist (not flooded) all the time with a 1-2 mm layer as minimum. Using this strategy gives a 30-50% cut requirements without yield losses.

4. Other cultural practices

· Maintain rice paddy dikes to minimize seepage and clean irrigation ditches regularly.

· Establish good weed control. Most weeds are much more efficient than rice in exploiting soil moisture.

· Supply nitrogen (N) and other fertilizers early. If using less than 30 kg N/ha, apply all of it basally. If applying more than 30 kg N/ha, use the best split (2/3 basal and 1/3 topdress 5-7. days after panicle initiation [DAP]). This improves the plant's drought resistance by encouraging faster root growth and, thus, more soil area can be exploited for soil moisture.

· Increase soil organic maker (OM) content. OM improves the soil's water absorption and retention capacity.

· Minimum tillage (one plowing and one harrowing) reduces the water requirement for land preparation and speeds crop establishment, lowering the risks of an end-of-season drought. Minimum tillage is possible in fields where perennial weeds are few.

· Direct seedling of pregerminated seed can be used where there is not enough water to thoroughly prepare the land for transplanting. Direct seeding also results in a stronger root system. This gives the crop batter capacity to survive during short drought.

· Farmers should use the early rains of May for land preparation since this water largely goes to waste.

5. Altering the physical farm environment

· If feasible, impound water in one-fifth of the land area. A 200 sq.m structure will be enough to supply the water for a half hectare of rice crop and could also be used for fish production.

· Reduce the area planted to rice to increase the amount of irrigation or residual rainfall water available. The Sorjan system developed by farmers in Indonesia is one such method of water management. Tests done in Indonesia show that this system nearly doubled the amount of available water for rice production. Devote low-lying areas of the farm to rice and plant the upper areas with dryland crops. The rice crop can take advantage of the higher water table in the lower areas and can utilize runoff from the upper areas. (See the technology sheet on Sorjan: Towards Rice-based Integrated Cropping System.)

· Plant windbreaks to reduce evapotranspiration of the rice crop.

· At the national level, deforestation is the main cause of irrigated water shortages for rice production. For long-term sustainability, the nation's mountainous area must be reforested.

Legume crop rotation with rice

INTRODUCTION:

In rainfed lowland areas which are traditionally planted to only one crop of rice per year, land use can be optimized by using the pre- and/or post-rice wet period to grow-legume crops. Legumes are suitable rotational crops with rice because they:

· can mature in 55-90 days.
· can be grown as pre-rice crop when rainfall accumulation reaches 100 mm/mo or as postrice crop using the receding rain and residual soil moisture.
· are acceptable crops because they are easy to prepare for consumption or to sell at the market.
· are drought-tolerant.
· are capable of using atmospheric nitrogen and contribute nitrogen to the soil.

IMPORTANCE:

1. Intensifies land use and increases crop production per area per year.
2. Provides an additional source of food and income to farmers. Legumes can also provide biomass for green manure and fodder.
3. Sustains soil productivity through nitrogen cycling with legumes.
4. Weed production is reduced by planting an otherwise fallow area.

DESIGNING THE CROP ROTATION PATTERN: (Refer to the figure on theoretical rainfall occurrence and proposed legume-rice sequences)

1. Based on knowledge from past years or from rainfall data, determine the onset and the end of the rainy season.
2. Choose short-maturing varieties of both rice and legume crop to accomodate a three-crop sequence or to avoid water stress.
3. Estimate the planting and harvesting dates of each crop in the cropping sequence.
4. If, based on the rainfall occurrence and drainage system, only a two-crop sequence is possible, there is a flexibility to choose a longer duration crop variety which has other desired characteristics.

Theoretical rainfall occurrence and the proposed legume-rice sequence

ADDITIONAL POINTERS:

1. The field should be well-drained. This minimizes flood damage if heavy rains occur during the legume cropping season and it facilitates post-rice land preparation for legumes.

2. If no legume crop will be grown after the rice crop, the field should still be plowed after rice harvest so that land preparation for the following pre-rice legume could be done quickly and easily using the early rains.

3. For the post-rice legume, a variety high in both grain and biomass yield (usually indeterminate or late-maturing) such as indeterminate cowpea, Indigofera, etc., is desirable so that more residues will be produced for use as fodder during summer or as green manure for the next crop. The crop should be tolerant to drought.

4. Other criteria in choosing crop varieties/species to be used are: adaptability to the site; marketability; tolerance to crop hazards -- like excess moisture (for pre-rice crop), drought (for post-rice crop), wind and short-term floods.

The ideal legume species are mung bean and cowpea. They are planted with 50 cm row spacing at a population of 300-350 and 350-400 thousand plants/ha as pre-rice and post-rice crop, respectively.

5. If the available time for pre-rice legume is less than 60 days, green manures, such as Sesbania, could be planted instead of grain legumes.

Rice ratooning

Ratooning, the ability of rice plants to regenerate new tillers after harvest, may be one practical way to increase rice production per unit area and per unit time. Because ratooned rice has shorter duration than a new crop, it may increase productivity in areas where cropping intensity is limited by inadequate irrigation facilities or by a second crop where the rice season is less than 180 days. Besides short duration, it costs less to grow a ratoon crop than a new crop. The major advantages of rice ratooning are:

· Lower production costs because of savings in land preparation and plant care during early growth;
· Short duration;
· Efficient use of the growing seasons, especially in monsoonal climates;
· Higher yield per unit area in less time;
· Possible maintenance of the genetic purity of a variety or hybrid rice through several seasons;
· Low irrigation water requirements;
· 60% reduction in the amount of water needed to compare to a second crop of transplanted rice; and
· 50-60% reduction in the amount of labor needed especially important considering the shortage of labor when the first rice crop is harvested and the second is planted.

Yields are generally lower in a ratoon crop than in a transplanted second crop. However, the capital and labor savings are often enough to make a ratoon crop more profitable. The lower yield potential outputs of 3-4 T/ha have been frequently reported.

HOW TO HAVE RATOON CROP PRODUCTION:

Selecting the right variety is one of the most important and critical steps in obtaining high crop yields from ratoons. An ideal cultivar for rice ratoon cropping should have the following traits:

· Produces ratoon tillers after and not before harvest;
· Tillering from basal, not upper, nodes;
· Sixteen ratoon tillers/hill at 20 x 20 cm spacing;
· At least 3 leaves/tiller;
· Resistance to major disease and insects;
· Synchronized flowering and maturity;
· More than 60 growth duration from cutting to maturity; and
· High grain yield.

Recommended land preparation practices for the main rice crop are undertaken only once because the ratoon crop does not require another round of land preparation. Deep plowing (25 cm depth) increases yield of the ratoon crop but under Philippine conditions, this is not practical.

Crop establishment in the main crop may either be by transplanting or direct seeding. Planting density is a more important factor in determining yield: the more plant/sq.m. the higher the yield (if no lodging occurs). Direct seeding usually results in a higher plant density than does transplanting at 20 cm x 20 cm distances but if the triple row transplanting method is used, plant density is about the same and less lodging occurs.

Fertilization of the main crop is essential for good yields in the ratoon crop. Deep placement of N fertilizer, if feasible, should be practiced as yields in the ratoon crop are increased by this practice. Green manuring practices and Nitrogen rates recommended for the first crop should be followed. N should be applied immediately at the harvest of the main crop to stimulate tillering of the ratoon crop. Suggested rate is 15-45 kg. N/ha.

Ratooning is a viable option for those farms where a second rice crop is not profitable and upland crops are either not profitable or cannot be grown due to poor drainage or other. factors.

Sorjan: towards rice-based integrated cropping systems

Sorjan, an indigenous technology of Indonesia, is a series of sinks or canals alternating with raised beds. Rice is usually planted in the sinks and a wide variety of upland crops is grown in the raised beds. The use of Sorjan (on 1000 sq.m) as one component of an integrated rice farming system results in higher and more regular income for the farmer due to the following:

1. Increased production per unit of land area
2. Crop Diversification

· Growing of high-value, off-season crops
· Simultaneous growing of a wide variety of lowland and upland crops assures farmers a good harvest from at least one of the crops.
· Increased fodder production for livestock.

3. Earlier rice crops and higher yields in partially irrigated or rainfed areas
4. Other Benefits

· Increase in quantity and variety of food available for home consumption
· Increased fertility of sinks
· More even use of labor throughout the year
· Practical and ideal for farmers whose land area is less than 1 hectare
· Could be adopted in a wide range of agro-ecological conditions.

Note: This technology has a high labor requirement during the initial development of the plots.

1. INCREASED PRODUCTION AND LAND UTILIZATION

Production increases in Sorjan because water is used more efficiently, weed control is easier and both upland and lowland crops are grown in environments more closely tailored to their needs.

Water collects and stays in the sinks -- where it is needed most. The standing water aids rice growth and keeps weed populations to a minimum. The upland crops have a stable water supply (the standing water in the sinks which is available to them through wicking action), combined with good drainage and air circulation.

Along the sink portion (as well as in lateral canals) fish could also be introduced while, at the top portion of the sink, trellises for vegetable production are also recommended.

Under these Ideal conditions, production is very high. In work done by a Masteral student at U.P. Los Ba�os, yields of grains and fodder from the Sorjan were 21 T/ha/yr of grains and 14 T/ha/yr of fodder for continuous cropping of rice.

2. DIVERSIFIED PRODUCTION

The growing of upland and lowland crops at the same time in the same field practically assures the farmer a good harvest of at least one of the crops. High-value crops, such as tomatoes and onions, fetch very high price when grown in the rainy season -- which is possible in Sorjan. The most profitable cropping pattern tested by IRRI was tomatoes -- onions -- bush sitao with a net income of more then P40,000/ha.

The quantity and quality of fodder production are also greatly increased. The addition of grain legumes, such as mung bean, provides high protein fodder for livestock. Intensive production of fodder grasses and trees to supplement livestock feeds is possible in this system. Napier planted in the side of the beds prevents the erosion of the beds (reducing maintenance) and produces more than 2 kg of high quality fodder grass/linear meter every month. In the UPLB study, fodder produced was enough to meet the feed needs of 11 carabao heifers or 29. cattle fatteners.

In the study conducted by IIRR in 1988 (dry season), data showed that the net income of rice planted on the sink portion yielded P9,471 on a hectarage basis, while on the elevated plot, cowpea had P10,773 and napier grass with P2,706.

Rice-fish also has very good potential in Sorjan due to the greater degree of water control. IRRI has recorded yields of nearly 200 kg of fish/ha/crop in addition to rice and upland crop yields. Yields could be tripled according to data from India.

3. EARLIER RICE CROPS WITH HIGHER YIELDS

In rainfed or partially irrigated areas, farmers must wait for enough water to accumulate before plowing and puddling the soil (land preparation). In Sorjan sinks where the rice is grown, water accumulation is faster because of runoff from the beds. Tests in India indicate that 46% of the rain falling on the beds is collected in the sinks. Fields can be puddled up to three weeks sooner. The same trials in India compared rice yields from Sorjan and normal rainfed rice over three years. Yields were 70% higher per unit area in Sorjan. This means that even by taking half the land out of rice production (i.e., the raised beds), yields were almost the same (1.5 T/ha for rainfed rice production and 1.3 T/ha in Sorjan).

BED CONSTRUCTION:

The construction of the beds can be done in several ways: plowing with an upland plow and shovelling the soil to form the beds; or plowing a flooded field, harrowing to move the soil into a rough bed and then shovelling to straighten the edges.

The method chosen will depend greatly on labor availability. An area of about 1,000 sq.m. requires anywhere from 300-600 man hours -- which can vary upon the number of beds to be constructed, their width and height.

DETERMINING BED HEIGHT AND WIDTH:

A number of factors need to be taken into consideration when deciding on bed height and width:

Height:

- Terrain. If field is sloping, a lower height is needed because there is less problem with drainage (for the upland crop planted on the beds).
- Chance of flooding/height of floodwater. If flooding occurs, the bed must be high enough so that the upland crops will not be flooded.
- Rate of soil erosion from bed to sinks. Original heights of bed should be higher under high erosity conditions.
- Soil fertility/depth of topsoil. Sinks should not be dug so deep that subsoil is exposed.

Width (and/or number of beds):

- Water needs. If the land is rainfed, the width will be determined by how much runoff from the beds is needed for the rice in the sinks.
- Convenience of the farmer. If the farmer plans to plow the beds, these need to be wide enough to facilitate the plowing operation. On the other hand, making many narrower beds is faster than making fewer but wider beds.

INCREASING FERTILITY OF SINKS:

Removing topsoil from the sink area reduces soil fertility which will affect lowland crop yields. The farmer should therefore focus efforts on increasing soil fertility with large amounts of organic matter. Some possibilities include:

· planting green manure or grain legume in the sinks as soon as possible after formation
· mulching the crops with straw during the dry season
· moving livestock housing to sink areas during the dry season fallow period
· using Azolla if feasible (might be possible even in rainfed areas due to increased moisture availability and better water control).

If moisture is present in the raised beds plant soybean, cowpea, or mung bean. Mung bean, in particular, does very well in newly constructed beds. Mulch the crop as well. Some upland crops are better suited than others to new Sorjan beds including sweet pepper, cucurbits (cucumber, squash and ampalaya) and grain and vegetable legumes.

SOURCE: PCARRD Monitor

A. for waterlogged areas

B. for predominantly rice-based areas

Maximizing the dry season for post-rice alternatives

RATIONALE:

There is a need to maximize the use of residual moisture an/or land area in rice-based farming systems, through crop-intensification by raising alternative crops after rice. This also contributes to the diversification of the farm.

Diversification of crops in a rice-based system, particularly with the use of vegetable crops, improves overall farm income, reduces the degree of deterioration of fertility, increases the uses of residual moisture and cropping intensity and improves daily cash flows. Such multiple cropping systems also help reduce insect populations.

CONSIDERATIONS:

· Is land efficiently used?
· Are all land areas utilized?
· Does the present use conserve the land?
· Is available water efficiently used?
· Are the crops grown when they are best suited?
· Is farm work designed to employ/utilize the labor of other family members?
· What capital resources are available?

Figure

IN THE SELECTION OF CROPS, CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING:

· market potential/demand
· price
· family benefit
· knowledge/skill in growing
· maturity of varieties
· time of planting
· method of planting

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS:

1. Immediately before harvesting, mung bean seeds are broadcasted into the rice paddies. During harvesting, the mung beans are trampled thus establishing a mung bean crop stand.

Mung bean seeds are broadcasted

2. The rice stubble is cut to the ground and used as a mulch (in addition-to the rice straw from threshing). After mulching the field, the area is flooded for about 1/2 day or until it is saturated. The area is then planted with onion or garlic. (Nueva Ecija)

The rice stubble is cut to the ground

3. The field is plowed and harrowed and planted with various vegetables. (Nueva Ecija)

The field is plowed and harrowed

4. The paddies are cleaned of rice stubble, flooded until saturated and holes are dug at a 2 m x 2 m distance. Watermelon and musk melon are then planted. (Nueva Ecija and Cavite)

The paddies are cleaned of rice stubble

CROPPING PATTERN FOR A RAINFED LOWLAND RICE-BASED AREA:

Rice is grown from July to October when water is available and the supply is adequate. Then, using residual soil moisture and available rain water, vegetable production can be feasible during the dry season.

CROPPING PATTERN FOR AN IRRIGATED LOWLAND RICE-BASED AREA:

Two crops of rice can be grown between May and January. The first with rain and the second with supplemental irrigation. Vegetable crops can then be grown during the dry months using available residual soil moisture.

Watermelons in rice paddies

RATIONALE:

Scarce land resources can be optimized and farm income can be increased by planting high value crops in rice paddies during the months following the rice harvest. Farmers in Cavite, Philippines, have demonstrated that planting watermelons can be a profitable venture if the activity is properly timed. Demand for watermelon is high, especially during the hot, summer months when it is a popular fruit used as dessert. The practice can also help farmers to recover any losses they might have suffered in their rice crop resulting from unforeseen circumstances like typhoons, pests and diseases, fluctuations in price and other causes. Labor inputs for crop establishment are low because minimum tillage is used, thus requiring little land preparation.

CONSIDERATIONS:

· Recommended Varieties

· Cropping Pattern

In order to receive the best price, watermelons should be planted from September to late October. Therefore, they should be planted 14-25 days before the rice crop is harvested. Planting during this period enables the farmer to harvest the crop earlier than most farmers, thus he can command a higher price for his produce. Also, raising watermelons during the cooler climate helps avoid possible thrips infestation which usually occurs during the hot, drier months of the year. Once the watermelons are harvested, batao (Dolichos lablab) can be sown as a cover crop and green manure for the remainder of the dry season.

Cropping Pattern

· Land Preparation -- Direct seeding is a common practice in planting watermelons.

a. Identify the rows where the watermelons will be planted.
b. Using a stick or planting board, push the rice plants to one side -- creating a space in which the planting can be done.
c. Dig the hole 20-25 cm deep and 20-25 cm wide. Place the topsoil one side of the hole and the subsoil on the other side. The holes are spaced 1.25 m between rows and 1 m between hills.

Push the rice plants to one side

The holes are spaced

· Planting

Mix equal amounts of compost or decomposed manure with the topsoil set aside earlier. Return the mixture to the hole. Sow 4-5 seeds. After the rice is harvested, thin out the unhealthy plants, leaving only three to mature. Place mulch around the base of the plant.

Place mulch around the base of the plant

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Use of rice plant by-products (introduction...) Improving the taste and nutrient availability of rice straw Briquettes: fuel from farm wastes Making charcoal from rice hulls Rice-hull stoves

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Use of rice plant by-products

Improving the taste and nutrient availability of rice straw

Enriching the rice straw

Livestock raising can be an efficient way of converting edible but relatively undigestible and unmarketable nutrients produced on the farm (like rice straw) into valuable animal products. Even though their feed value is low, the crop residues are plentiful and low cost. By using simple methods, these residues can be improved to become important components of livestock feeds.

Rice straw has a low feed value -- not only because of its small amount of nutrients, but also because the nutrients that exist are not readily available to the livestock. Enriching the rice straw with nitrogen or high-quality fodder (such as leaves from leguminous trees) makes the nutrients in the rice straw more available. The bacteria in the rumen of cattle, goats or carabaos use the nitrogen to multiply quickly and they, in turn, break down rice straw nutrients into forms that can be utilized by the livestock.

Rice straw can be enriched directly by mixing it with the nutrients before feeding or indirectly by feeding the improved fodder/feeds separately and allowing the mixing of the straw and the improved feeds to take place in the rumen of the animal. Some simple methods are described below:

A. Mixing dry rice straw with fresh grasses or legume fodder in equal amounts.

B. Sprinkling salt solution (a handful of salt to 1 gallon of water) or molasses on a portion of rice straw to be given in a single feeding.

C. Treating straw with urea

1. Dissolve 400 9 (roughly 1/2 li) urea in 10 liter water (half a kerosene can). Urea increases the nutrient content of the straw.

2. Sprinkle the solution over 10 kg dry rice straw (about 2 sacks, tightly packed).

3. Mix thoroughly.

4. Tightly pack the mixture in an airtight container (concrete or clay container, barrel or drum, or pit lined with plastic or clay).

5. Seal the top with plastic so the ingredients will ferment in 10-21 days.

6. Once the container is opened, the treated rice straw should be consumed within 14-21 days.

D. Providing urea, molasses and water as a healthful drink to ruminants above 6 months old.

When animals are stall-fed with rice straw, they must be provided with this drink at least twice a day, in addition to tap water. Prepare the drink at least two hours before it is given to the animals.

1. Mix 1 tbsp urea granules into 15 liter clean water.

2. Mix the solution until the urea is dissolved. Allow the solution to stand for 2 hours so the ammonia is released.

3. Add 4 tbsp molasses before giving the drink to the animal. (NOTE: Be careful not to put more urea than is required. Harmful effects of urea toxicity range from drowsiness, excessive salivation or going off feed. The most severe reaction is death.)

E. Salting Hay

Sprinkle 10-20 Ibs (5-10 kg) salt on each ton of damp rice straw. This can help prevent mold and undue heating. Salting makes poor quality hay more palatable. However, it does not ensure against spoilage (Morrison, 1961).

F. Providing low-cost molasses-urea block.

* Contains calcium carbonate, adds nutrients and serves to bind the formula ingredients.

1. In one container, mix half of the salt (2.5%) in 5.6 liter water, then incorporate the cement (or lime). Add more water if necessary.

2. In a separate container, mix the wheat bran or rice bran, the remaining half of the salt (2.5%) and the urea thoroughly. Add the molasses until they are evenly mixed.

3. Combine the two mixtures and mix into a fine slop.

4. Line a mould or receptacle with plastic sheets to facilitate removal of the block. (Plastic pails or empty biscuit cans will do.) Another cheap method is to arrange 4 wooden boards on the ground in a 2 m x 3 m x 20 cm high rectangular mould. Pour the mixture into the mould without compressing and let it set for 24 hours.

5. The following day, cut the mass with a flat spade into 20 cm x 20 cm blocks, each one weighing about 10 kg.

6. The molasses-urea block can be given to the animals on a self-feeding box when they return from pasture or when stall-fed. The average consumption is about 250-700 g/day for an adult animal weighing 250 kg or more.

Briquettes: fuel from farm wastes

1. To make good use of rice hulls and cow dung (if available).
2. Briquettes are convenient to store in homes than loose rice hulls.
3. Saves on wood fuel and other fuel resources.

Mix one part rice hull to five parts fresh cow dung.

Mould the mix in tin cans opened both ends.

Sundry for three days

Push one end of the briquette when dry

It may then be used for cooking

Making charcoal from rice hulls

1. Char the rice hulls in a carbonizer (or a rice hull stove, but make sure that the rice hulls are not turned to ashes). Soak in water immediately to prevent char from turning to ashes.

Char the rice hulls in a carbonizer

2. Mix with as little binding material as possible, just enough to hold the charred hulls together when moulded. Paddy soil or fresh cow dung may be used as binder.

Mix with as little binding material as possible

3. Mould the mixture by hand, or by using a briquettor.

Mould the mixture by hand

4. Dry under the sun for about three days

Dry under the sun

5. When dried, the briquettes are reedy for cooking or drying grain crops.

The briquettes are reedy

(Adapted from IRRI and UPLB brochures)

Rice-hull stoves

The unmindful cutting of trees for firewood, poles and other uses has depleted available resources in most villages. Lowland areas are particularly affected as areas are cleared for paddy rice and/or vegetable production.

The increasing price of firewood demands the need to search for fuelwood substitutes. Rice hull, often regarded as a waste product of rice processing, can be the answer to such a quest. Rice hulls can be obtained free or at very minimal costs. This sheet discusses stove designs based on rice hulls as the energy source. Promoting their use will conserve valuable tree resources.

RICE HULL STOVE MODELS:

Packed Stoves. The rice hulls are packed tightly into the stove, leaving empty channels through the fuel mass for air, smoke, flames and hot grasses to pass. There are one to three vents at the base of the stove and cook pots are placed on an opening at the top.

1. Position 2 thick pieces of wood in the stove as shown.

2. Pour rice hulls in and pack them with piece of wood and mallet.

5. When the chamber is filled up to 1-2 inches from the
top, carefully remove the pieces of wood, leaving on air vent and a chimney.

4. Dip a narrow stick in kerosene, light it, and push it into the hole as shown.

Packed Stoves

Natural Draft Stove The husks are fed into the stove above the fire and fall down a slanted grate as they burn. The air intake is located under this grate, forcing all air drawn into the stove to pass through the burning fuel. The stove ash is raked out from below the grate. The Thailand and Philippine models below are widely used in the provinces of Bulacan, Laguna and Cavite. The Philippine model comes in different sizes and is widely available in local markets.

Perspective view

Front view

Cross sectional side-view

Rear view

Perspective view

Top view

Cross sectional side-view

Adapted from Rice Hulls as Fuel by Craig Thorbum, 1982.

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Farm implement (introduction...) Thresher options for the farmers Dryers: investment for the rainy days Slicer for sesbania and other green manures

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Farm implement

Thresher options for the farmers

With the rise in popularity of the axial flow threshers in the 70's, various sectors of society have since benefitted -- from the small farmer to the big farmer to the non-farmer-worker-turned-thresher-operator to the farm machine manufacturer to the money-lender-businessman. Currently, farmers have a wide range of threshing system options from which to choose depending on the volume of palay to be threshed, available capital and labor resources, availability of threshers for rent and the existing socioeconomic structures and systems. The threshing can be done by the farmer using the reliable and almost zero-cost hampas method, by paying for the threshing service or by pooling resources of a farmer group to purchase a thresher unit.

Basic data or, existing thresher models are presented on the other side of this sheet. This information may be helpful to farmers or groups of farmers in their initial assessment of existing threshers (as taken from IRRI and UPLB handouts). As of 1989, prices of threshers range from P2,000 to P6,000 depending on size and model.

Thresher options for the farmers

SOME BASIC INFORMATION ON EXISTING PALAY THRESHERS MODELS

For details contact:

1. Agricultural Engineering Department International Rice Research Institute Los Ba�os, Laguna
2. Agricultural Mechanization Development Program College of Engineering and Agro-lndustrial Technology University of the Philippines Los Ba�os, Laguna
3. Agricultural Engineering Division Bureau of Plant Industry San Andres, Malate, Manila

Dryers: investment for the rainy days

WHY DRYERS (especially for the rainy season)?

1. Farmers can avoid selling wet palay (unmilled rice) at low prices.

2. Higher milling recoveries are obtained from properly dried grain.

3. Farmers can better save their seeds for the next planting (common practices of using electric fans and frying pans to dry seeds on rainy days are costly and inefficient).

4. Dryers require less space compared to sundrying.

5. Most dryer designs make use of farm wastes for fuel.

Dryers

As far as small farmers are concerned, dryers are for rainy season use. However, if they are paying for the use of the drying pavement and hiring workers to mix and haul the grains, dryers may still prove more economical even in the dry season.

LIMITATIONS TO USING DRYERS AND WHAT MAY BE DONE:

1. Entails higher operational and investment cost compared to sundrying.

Dryers cost from P2000 - P40,0000 per unit. The investment cost per farmer may be decreased if a group or cooperative owns the dryer. The dryer can also be rented out to generate income. A drying cost of about P4.45/cavan (1 cavan = 50 kg) has been calculated for one dryer model (1988 estimates).

2. Limited grain-drying capacity. If there is need for drying large volumes, the multistage drying technique may be used. This involves first drying the grain to 18-20% moisture content (MC) and then drying it a second time to the required13-14%MC. This technique may be used because simply lowering the grain MC to 18-20% greatly delays grain deterioration.

If the task is to dry only 2-40 cavans of grain per day, then the existing dryer models may be used without resorting to the multistage drying technique.

INFORMATION ON SOME EXISTING PALAY DRYER MODELS

*One cavan = 50 kg.

For details on technical design, contact:

1. College of Engineering and Agro-lndustrial Technology University of the Philippines at Los Ba�os College, Laguna, Philippines

2. Agricultural Engineering Department International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Los Ba�os. Laguna, Philippines

3. Central Philippines University College of Agriculture lloilo, Philippines

Slicer for sesbania and other green manures

The slicer is an indigenous blade-toothed, animal-drawn weed chopper which has been used by farmers in Northern Luzon for generations. Since rice was cropped only once a year, the slicer was originally used to cut viny and tall weeds that grew during the long fallow period after rice harvest. The slits in the soil made by the slicer also facilitated plowing.

One objection to the use of green manure crops by many farmers is the difficulty of incorporating the biomass into the soil. The slicer, with its capability of handling large amounts of biomass produced during long fallow periods, should help overcome that difficulty. The slicer could help to make green manuring (the practice of growing and incorporating plant biomass for fertilizer) more attractive to farmers.

USING THE SLICER:

The slicer, with a weight on the board, is pulled by a carabao. As the carabao steps forward, the plants are pressed down. The front board of the slicer further presses the green manure crop to the ground and the blades then cut the biomass into pieces. The slicer is pulled ever the green manure several times depending upon the amount and thickness of the biomass. If the crop growth is dense, a cries-cross passing may be needed to finely chop the biomass.

Using the slicer

LIMITATIONS:

· If the green manure is too tall, it may be difficult for the carabao to pass through the field.
· If the stalks or stems become woody, the slicer may not be able to cut the stems very well.

MATERIALS NEEDED FOR SLICER:

Farmers can easily make a slicer with local materials. The blades can be ordered from blacksmiths at P25 (5 blades are needed). The wooden board that holds the blade would cost only P50 to P80. The draw bar can be made from any hard wood like kakawate (Gliricidia septum) or coffee branches.

The slicer design illustrated here is the same as that used by farmers in Northern Luzon with the exception of one extension hole in each of the five blades The original design haz only one hole in one end of each blade. IIRR engineers added the other hole to double the life of the blades. Only one end of each blade is attached to the slicer. The other end is worn down by constant contact with the soil. When that end is worn down almost to the hole, the blade is turned around. The end originally attached to the board now serves as the slicing end of the blade.

General view

Perspective view

Side view

Top view

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Integrated systems (rice-fish-livestock-trees) (introduction...) Rice-clam culture Rice-fish culture Rice-pig-fish culture Vegetable-duck-fish culture (Tinola garden) Care and management of mini-ponds Backyard poultry project using compost litter system Backyard piggery project Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs Backyard carabao raising for draft and milk Azolla meal for layers and broilers Azolla silage as feed for growing pigs Multipurpose trees for the lowlands Additional livestock feed resources

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Integrated systems (rice-fish-livestock-trees)

Rice-clam culture

Clams grow naturally in many rice paddies and rural people have traditionally harvested them. This was true until chemical use in rice paddies resulted in the elimination of these clams in many areas. Intentional culturing of clams simply adds one extra step to the traditional clam harvesting -the seeding of clams.

From work with farmers in Quirino province, it was found that:

· Clam culture in rice serves as a buffer against unforeseen crop losses due to flooding or diseases like tungro.

· Clam production serves as a source of additional income (in 1 hectare paddy the average yield was 226 kg marketable clams valued at P1,800/ha.)

· In addition to extra income, the clams serve as a source of protein and minerals for the farmer's family.

PROCEDURE:

1. 20-25 days after planting, increase the irrigation water in the paddies to the maximum tolerable depth proportionate to the rice plant (approximately 5 cm depth). If the crop needs weeding, the rotary weeder can be used before irrigation.

Increase the irrigation water in the paddies

2. Let the water stand for 2 days to soften the soil and to neutralize sold toxicity or pesticide residues.

Let the water stand for 2 days

3. On the third day, drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water to the depth mentioned above.

Drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water

4. Evenly broadcast baby clams along the rice furrows. Seeding should be done in every other furrow.

Evenly broadcast baby

5. Harvest the clams as soon as they reach the desired marketable size (size of the new P50 coin) or just before harvesting the rice.

Harvest the clams

Note:

· Avoid using chemical insecticides; as a substitute, use botanicals.
· Don't introduce carp into the paddies seeded with clams. Carp eat clams.
· Faster growth of clams is attained when fields are fertilized with organic materials.
· Medium- to long-maturing rice varieties should be used in clam-rice culture. This allows the clams to stay longer in the paddy field.
· Rice-clam system is best suited to areas where there is a continuous supply of water.

Rice-fish culture

Before the advent of modern farming practices, freshwater fish, such as catfish (Clarias sp.) and mudfish (Channa striate) grew abundantly in rice field paddies in Asia. These fish occurred naturally without being cultured by farmers. The indiscriminate use of chemicals for protection from pests in rice has largely reduced their populations.

In rice-fish culture, it is possible to produce freshwater fish like nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) with catfish and mudfish along with a high rice yield.

Rice-fish culture

1. TRENCH CONSTRUCTION

· Begin construction before the onset of the rainy season.
· For tilapia, mudfish and catfish, the trench is 1 1/2-2 m wide and 1 m deep or 10% of the rice field area.

Notes on Rice-Fish Trenches:

1. Raise peripheral dikes of the rice-fish field.
2. Locate the trench at the lower end of the field.
3. The bamboo outlet and inlet pipes should be at least 3 inches in diameter.

· The water that falls from the inlet pipes provides aeration to the trench.
· The outlet pipes are necessary for drainage to maintain the desired water level in the rice field.

4. Construct a small trench 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep. This will guide the fish to go to the trench.
5. For additional sources of income -- plant gabi, string beans and other suitable vegetables on the dikes. However, to minimize seepage, do not plant gabi where the pipes are installed.

2. FERTILIZATION OF THE TRENCH

· When there is enough water in the trench (from initial rains or from irrigation canal), apply any of the following organic fertilizers:

· Fertilize once a month or when the color of the water is no longer greenish. Greenish water is indicative that there is sufficient natural food (plankton) in the trench.

· Method of application

- Broadcast the manure after the construction of the trench (basal application).
- Place the manure in a sack. Submerge it in the trench 15-20 cm below the water level.
- You may also dump the manure in one corner of the trench.

3. STOCKING

· Stock the trench with Tilapia fingerlings (3-5 9) 15 days after the application of manure at the following rate:

- 1 fingerling/sq.m - no supplemental feeding (10,000/ha)
- 2 fingerlings/sq.m - with supplemental feeding (20,000/ha)

· If polyculture is practiced, the stocking rate should be:

- Tilapia - 75%-85%
- Carp - 10%-15%
- Catfish/Mudfish - 5%-10%

4. LAND PREPARATION AND TRANSPLANTING

· During the onset of the rains, plow and harrow the land thoroughly. Transplant seedlings 1 day after the last harrowing.
· Maintain at least 1 inch water depth.

5. FERTILIZATION OF THE RICE FIELD

· Incorporate manure into the soil at the last harrowing.

- Chicken/Hog manure 2-3 kg./10M²
- Carabao/Cow manure 3-4kg./10M²

· At this point, also apply the recommended basal N for the rice crop.

6. OPENING THE DIKE

· One month after transplanting, make 3 openings in the dike to allow the fish from the trench to enter the rice field.
· Maintain the water level at 10-15 cm and increase it to 20-25 cm after the maximum tillering stage.

7. HARVESTING

· By the time the rice crop is ready for harvesting, so are some of the fish.
· Harvest only the big fish (50-60 9 or heavier). Extend the culture period of the smaller ones for the next rice cropping.

SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING (OPTIONAL)

a) Rice bran- 80%
Ipil-ipil- 20%

b) Rice bran - 65%
Ipil-ipil meal - 20%
Molasses/Golden
Snails (ground) - 15%

Supplemental feeding

Feeding Method

1. Add a little water to the feed ingredients and ball it.
2. Place the balled feeds in a feeding tray made of fish net.
3. Tie the feeding tray to a pole and submerge it in water (see illustration).

Rate and Frequency of Feeding

· Determine the consumption of the fish per feeding by actual observation. First month 1-2 handfuls for 100 fish per day. Adjust the amount accordingly.
· Feed twice a day, morning and afternoon if necessary.

Notes:

1. For a single crop of rice, extend the culture of the small fish after the harvest by utilizing the whole field if water is still available.

2. Establish a tilapia and carp hatchery pond (3 m x 5 m) in addition to the trench to maintain a breeding stock of quality fingerlings for future use.

3. Catfish and mudfish are migratory. To keep them in the rice paddy/trench, they should be provided with a continuous supply of feeds. Tilapia fingerlings serve as feeds for catfish and mudfish, as do slaughter house by-products (pieces of skin) and crushed golden snail. Plant kangkong or gabi (taro) around the trench. This may help to discourage the fish from leaving the trench.

Rice-pig-fish culture

The traditional Chinese farming practice of pig and fish raising within the rice field is now spreading throughout the Philippines and Southeast Asia in general. In addition to supplementing income and improving nutrition through pig and fish culture within the rice field, rice-pig-fish culture maximizes land use by integrating three farm enterprises.

Design 1. The pig pen is constructed on top of the dikes near the trench. The floor should be sloping towards the trench and preferably be made of a soil-cement mix or concrete. A pipe is necessary to convey the waste matter into the bench.

Design 2. The entire pig pen is over the trench. The floor is made of bamboo slats spaced just enough to allow manure to fall directly into the trench but not too wide for the feet of the pigs to be injured.

BASIC STEPS IN ESTABLISHING THE SYSTEM:

1. Trench construction

Establish the trench at the lower end of the rice field. The minimum trench area requirement should range from 70-80 sq.m/pig. The water depth is 60-100 cm. The rice field area is 500 sq.m. Inlet and outlet pipes should also be installed.

2. Location of the pig pen

The pig pen should be near or over the trench. Typically, the pig pen is 1 m x 1.5 m for each pig.

3. Stocking

Fish:

Stock the trench with fish when there is enough water from the irrigation canal or from other sources.

Stocking rate:

Monoculture: one (1) fish/m² (average weight 3-5g) or 10,000fingerlings/ha.

Polyculture:
Tilapia nilotica - 75-85% (average weight 3-5 9)
Common carp - 10-15% (average weight 3-59)
Catfish/mudfish - 5-10% (average weight 1-29)

Pig:
Stock weanling -- 8-10 kg. in the pig pen.

4. Dike construction

Construct the dikes after plowing the rice field. The size of the dikes is 1 m wide at the base and 40-50 cm at the top. The height of the dikes should be 75-80 cm. Install the inlet and outlet pipes.

5. Land preparation

Plow the rice growing area at the onset of the rainy season to provide ample time for the construction of dikes.

6. Fertilization of the rice field and transplanting

a. For the first rice crop in a 500 m² rice field apply the following inorganic fertilizer (depending on the fertility and kind of soil)

Urea --5-10 kg
14-14-14 -- 3- 5 kg

Reduce the rate of fertilizer application for the succeeding rice crop.

b. Allow some of the manure to flow to the rice field.
c. Transplant after thorough land preparation and fertilization.

7. Opening the dikes

a. One month after transplanting, make 3-4 openings in the dikes in the trench to allow the fish to move into the rice field and forage for feed.
b. Maintain the water level at 10-15 cm and increase it to 20-25 cm after the maximum tillering stage.

8. Harvesting

a. Fish

Harvest the bigger-sized fish after 120-150days by draining the trench. Extend the culture period of the small fish to the next rice crop.

b. Pig

Sell the pig after 4-5 months.

c. Scrape out the decomposed organic waste and use as fertilizer for the rice crop.

NOTE:

Establish a tilapia and common carp hatchery pond (3m x 5m) to maintain a breeding stock of quality fingerlings for future use.

Vegetable-duck-fish culture (Tinola garden)

Tinola garden, as the name implies, is a type of garden where major ingredients in the preparation of tinola (a kind of poultry or fish soup with vegetables) are found in a 200 sq.m area.

Vegetable-duck-fish culture

BASIC COMPONENTS:

a. Duck raising for meat and/or eggs
b. Mini-fishpond
c. Vegetable growing

This vegetable-duck-fish culture is actually a modification of the original mini-fishpond operation. This technology, however, optimizes land use by planting vegetables on the dikes, fence and the construction of trellis over the mini-pond. Depending on the preferences of the farmer, dikes could be planted with different vegetables and crops (e.g., leaf, fruit, root or legumes) and areas along the fence and trellis with any climbing vegetables.

ADVANTAGES:

Some of the advantages of this tinola garden are the following:

· increase in quantity and variety of food for home consumption
· ensures fresh supply of poultry meat and eggs, fish and vegetables
· practical for those farmers whose land area is less than 1.0 hectare and adopting the ricefish culture.

NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS:

A. Vegetables

· On the trellis and fence -- squash, patola and other climbing vegetables.
· After the construction of pond dikes, the trellis could be constructed and planting of varieties of crops could immediately follow.

B. Mini-fishpond

· The dikes should be at least 1 m high, 1/2 m wide on the top and 1 m wide at the base.
· Water inside the pond must not be more than 1/2 m (to minimize fish losses).
· Recommended fish for stocking is Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) at the rate of 3 fingerlings/sq.m.
· Low-cost feeds may include rice bran, crushed snails and kitchen refuse.

Note: Refer to technology paper on Rice-Fish Culture for feeding and other management techniques.

C. Duck-Raising

Shed house (4 m x 1 m) made of low-cost and locally available materials (e.g., bamboo, ipilipil, madre de cacao, cogon, nipa, etc.) located in a 25 sq.m area in one section of the pond.

· Feeding troughs and waterers using old jeep or truck tires, clay pots or old cooking utensils.
· Stock: 8-12 heads (any species, depending on the farmer).
· Feeds may consist of rice bran, crushed banana trunk, crushed snails, kitchen refuse, kangkong, etc. Feeding is done twice a day.

Note: For more detailed information on duck raising, please see the technology paper on Backyard Duck Raising for Meat and Eggs.

Care and management of mini-ponds

The secret of success in growing fish in mini-ponds is proper care of the fish and management of the pond. Good pond management and care of the fish means faster growth and more fish for the family. The major points to remember are the following:

1. POND CONSTRUCTION

· Establish the mini-pond near a water source such as streams, springs, irrigation canals or manually operated pumps (pitcher pump), etc., which is free from flooding and with good drainage.

· The soil at the bottom and side of the minipond must be well packed to minimize seepage. If the soil is sandy or porous, line it with a mixture of carabao or cow dung, clay soil and cement.

· Plant grasses on the banks to prevent soil erosion. Grasses that grow fast and spread rapidly are ideal for this purpose.

· Put screens on the inlet and overflow pipes to prevent the entrance of predators and at the same- time to keep the fish from escaping.

Care and management of mini-ponds

2. WATER—QUALITY, DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE

· Water is of vital importance in raising fish. Always make sure that it is free from toxic substances, of the right temperature and the proper volume (depth). However, the warmwater fish do not require a constant supply of a large volume of fresh water. Most freshwater fish can be raised with water temperature ranging from 20°C - 40°C.

· The ideal water temperature ranges from 25°C - 30°C. In order to maintain the right temperature, plant leguminous trees like ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), madre de cacao (Gliricidia septum) and Dapdap (Erythina) on two sides of the mini-pond, about 1.5 m - 2 m from the bank. Orient the planting of trees on the east-west direction to allow enough sunlight into the pond. The leaf litter also serves to improve aquatic life.

· Occasionally, the water in the pond becomes turbid and muddy. To check the turbidity of water apply lime at the rate of 1 tbsp/sq.m. Dissolve the lime water and sprinkle it over the pond.

· Maintain water depth at 1 m so that the sun's rays can penetrate the water and induce the growth of plankton (natural fish food). Production of plankton decreases as water depth increases. In shallow water (.5 m), the water temperature easily gets high during summer. High temperature retards fish growth.

· Avoid letting the water out from the pond to prevent the fertilizers and plankton from flowing out.

· Drain the pond once a year. Keep it dry for a period of 2-3 weeks to aerate the soil.

3. POND FERTILIZATION

Fertilize the pond

Any kind of animal manure can be used

· The production of algae and microorganisms in the mini-pond is the most important task for the low-cost production of fish. Fertilize the pond at least twice a month for the water to remain greenish. Green color indicates that the water has plenty of small plants and microorganisms which serve as nutritious food for the fish.

· Any kind of animal manure can be used. However, chicken manure makes a better fertilizer. Apply .5-1 kg chicken manure/m. The manure can be placed directly in one corner of the pond or put in a burlap sack and submerged 20 cm below the water surface. Never broadcast the manure on the surface as this, in turn, will reduce sunlight entry into the water, resulting in poor plankton growth.

· Dried leaves of leguminous trees can also be used to fertilize the pond. Put the leaves in porous bags and submerge in water 20 cm below the surface. One to two sacks of dried leaves can help fertilize the mini-pond. Dried rice straw can also be dumped directly in one corner of the pond. Occasional broadcasting of green leaves of leguminous trees (smallleaf varieties such as Calliandra, Leucaena, etc.) is also very helpful and promotes aquatic life.

· If a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer is desired, 500 9 of organic fertilizer and 10 9 of inorganic fertilizer (preferably urea or 16-20-0)/m water can be applied to produce good results.

· On soils or water that are acidic, lime must be added. It can be broadcast on the bottom of the pond or put in a porous bag. Tie the bag to prevent it from submerging into the bottom of the pond. If lime is not available, it can be substituted by aged wood ash (not fresh ash or ash from paper).

4. FINGERLINGS

Stock only high-quality fingerlings. Secure your fingerlings from reliable hatcheries.

5. FEEDS AND FEEDING

· For faster growth, fish should be given supplemental feeds. A diet consisting of 20-30% ground ipil-ipil leaves or Azolla and 70-80% fine rice bran is recommended.
· When affordable, supplemental feeding of 100% fine rice bran is still the most economical (when natural food plankton in the mini-pond is abundant).
· Feed the fish twice a day, morning and afternoon.
· For a more efficient feeding, mash the feeds and place in a feeding tray made of fish net.
· The fish can also be fed with green leaves of kangkong, sweet potato, Azolla, kitchen leftovers, boiled sweet potato, cassava, gabi, crushed golden snails and white ants (termites).
· Surplus tilapia fingerlings (fresh) can be crushed and mixed with fine rice bran. This diet is very nutritious.
· Other cheap methods of feeding fish are:

- Hanging a lighted lamp over the center of the pond. At night, insects are attracted to the light and hover around it. The insects will fall into the pond where the fish can eat them.
- Feeding the fish with maggots (small worms). To produce maggots, hang pieces of meat or dead animals on a pole 2-3 ft above the water surface. Flies and other insects will lay their eggs on the meat or dead animals. After 2-3 days, maggots will come out and fall into the water.

6. CONTROL OF OVERPOPULATION

Overpopulation of fish is one of the problems in raising fish (tilapia) in mini-ponds. To obtain good yields of harvestable or marketable size of fish, population control is necessary. Any of the following methods may be used:

· Scooping the fry with a fine net early in the morning and late in the afternoon. The fries swim at the edges of the pond at this time of the day.
· Introducing predators into the pond such as mudfish (dalag) and catfish (hito) at 2% of the total stocking rate. To prevent predators from preying on the original stock, the size of the predators must be smaller than the original stock and should weigh less than one gram.

7. HARVESTING

· After 4-5 months, the bigger fish can already be harvested. Catch them with a hook and line using earthworms or golden snails as bait or use a sweep net.
· Harvest only enough fish for the family to consume.
· To ensure a continuous supply of fish for the family, replace the number of fish harvested immediately by collecting fingerlings from the breeding/hatchery pond.

Backyard poultry project using compost litter system

Backyard poultry project using compost litter system

With the high cost of producing imported breeds of birds for meat and eggs, the current trend for farm households is to revive the traditional family backyard poultry project using local and upgraded birds. These local breeds survive the adverse conditions found in the rural areas.

By using improved feeds and management practices, these local and upgraded birds can provide at least 130-200 eggs and extra poultry meat throughout the year for the family. These birds can be allowed to search for feed on the range or in confinement using a low-cost poultry compost litter system, practiced by some farmers in Cavite, Philippines. This system can sustain 6 hens and 1 rooster or 3 hens, 30 chicks and 1 rooster for at least 3 - 4 months. The compost litter is then removed and used as organic fertilizer and a new batch of farmyard manure is added. Production of a small flock in the backyard can help fill the family food requirements for eggs and meat, provide extra family income and utilize the manure as an excellent organic fertilizer.

BREEDS AND BREEDING:

The farm family should properly select an upgraded rooster (Cantonese, New Hampshire, Plymouth Rock breeds) and hens/layers.

Other poultry birds, like Muscovy duck. native or Pateros ducks, Peking duck, geese and pigeons are hardy and can also be raised under backyard conditions. They do not require elaborate housing and can subsist on inexpensive feeds.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS:

Construct the house using local materials to minimize expenses, (cogon/nipa for roof, bamboo or used fish nets for siding' end ipil-ipil/madre de cacao as posts). The house should be located in a dry, well-drained area. Perch racks, roosts, nests, feed hoppers and waterers made of low-cost materials should also be provided.

The house should not be less than 2.0 m in height with a floor area of 3 m x 3 m. The house should be fenced; or if the hens are raised with chicks, they can be raised in a separate open house.

Before constructing the house, dig a pit in the floor 1/2 m deep, extending the length of the house (3 m) and 2 m wide. Once the building is completed, the pit should be filled with fresh manure of cattle, carabao or goat. Keep the manure moist for one week (to encourage the growth of worms and maggots as feed for the chickens) and then place the upgraded/native birds in the poultry house. While scratching the ground, the birds will be eating as well as hastening the composting process.

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

The family should provide extra feed supplements, like kitchen refuse, fish entrails, corn/sorghum, ipil-ipil leaves and others. Clean, potable water should be always available.

Home Made Chicken Ration

· 4 parts yellow corn, broken rice (binlid) or sorghum. Boiled gabi, fresh ubi, camote or cassava (bitter type should be boiled) can also be substituted.
· 1.5 parts rice bran (darak). Dried azolla or filter cake (from sugar mills) can replace rice bran.
· 1 part dried fish meal or 2 parts fresh fish/golden snail
· 1.5 parts cope/oil meal
· 0.5 part ground sitao/mongo (mung)/patani (lima bean)/soybean/kadios (pigeon pea) seeds
· 0.5 part dried ipil-ipil leaves
· 1 tbsp salt
· 1 handful powdered oyster shell/agricultural lime

Note: Double the recommended amounts if ingredients are not in dry form.

Other Low-cost Poultry Feeds

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

Regular immunizations against Avian Pest, Fowl Pox and Fowl Cholera must be followed. A regular schedule of deworming, according to local conditions, must also be followed.

OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

Other management practices like brooding, rearing the chicks, culling and selection and record-keeping should be practiced.

Backyard piggery project

Although demand for pork in many areas is high, the rising cost of production discourages many small farmers from attempting to raise swine on a small scale. The use of commercial feeds is one of the main reasons for high production costs. Purchased feeds can constitute 60-80% of total expenses. Once an animal is sold, the amount of return received, after paying the feed bill, is often too low to purchase another animal and sustain the cycle of production. Therefore, for farmers with little capital to invest, an alternative mode of production must be advocated. This alternative includes the utilization of low-cost materials and feeds available within the farm. Of particular importance is the potential to reduce feed costs.

BREEDS AND BREEDING:

Upgraded cross-breed animals are recommended.

Housing requirement

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

1. Low-cost Feeds

Commercial feeds, while complete and usually available, are costly, thus driving up the cost of production for a swine project. However, a variety of non-conventional or traditional foodstuffs can be utilized to provide low-cost feeds to swine.

Below is a list of common on-farm resources which can be used as carbohydrate and protein sources and several ration formulas (with Crude Protein percentage) using some of the following feedstuffs:

1 -- Needs cooking.
2 -- Can be given fresh or as is.
3 -- Should be mixed with rice bran or commercial feeds.
4 -- Needs soaking.

LOW-COST SWINE RATIONS

2. Proper Feeding

a. Leftover food scraps from the house should be cooked to kill germs and remove toxin present in the foodstuff.
b. Unconsumed feeds in the troughs should be discarded before giving new feed to the animals.

3. How to Prepare Feeds for Swine

a. Chop all ingredients into small pieces.
b. Boil hard ingredients first (i.e., pongapong, green papaya, water lily, etc.).
c. When soft, add other ingredients (i.e., kangkong, leftover food, etc.).
d. Cook until done.
e. Cool.
f. Add a pinch of salt before feeding to the animals. These cooked feeds should be mixed - with rice bran when fed to the animals.

4. Alternative Feeding Management for a Fattener

a. During the first 2 months, feed piglets with commercial feeds (if the necessary ingredients to make a homemade, nutritious feeds are not available) to promote and boost growth.
b. In the second month, gradually substitute commercial starter ration with grower ration and begin slowly incorporating cooked supplemental feeds into the diet.
c. In the third month, one quarter of the ration can be replaced with supplemental, low-cost feeds previously listed.
d. At the fattening stage (4-6 months), one-half or more of the ration can be supplemental, lowcost feeds.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

1. Animals should be purchased from a reliable source in order to insure their hearth. Newly acquired animals should be isolated and observed for at least 2 weeks to determine their health status before introducing them into the pen area with other animals.

2. A regular schedule of vaccination should be followed to protect animals against swine diseases common in the area (i.e., hog cholera, etc.).

3. Animals should be regularly dewormed as needed or as local conditions dictate.

4. Improved sanitation ensures improved animal health:

a. Maintain clean pens.
b. Animals should be regularly bathed, especially during hot weather.
c. Excreta should be properly disposed, preferably composted in a pit or pile.

Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs

Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs

WHY RAISE DUCKS?

Ducks are one of the most practical, versatile and useful waterfowls to raise. Duck raising offers several benefits:

· Ducks are efficient producers of animal protein.
· Ducks provide both eggs and meat, for consumption or for sale.
· Ducks require limited space, simple shelter and minimal care.
· Ducks are resistant to diseases and thrive in harsh conditions.
· Ducks control harmful insects, unwanted aquatic weeds and golden snails.
· Duck manure is an excellent organic fertilizer.
· Ducks eat aquatic plants, grasses, vegetable trimmings, golden snails, insects and farm byproducts. Thus, providing feed is not a problem.

WHAT BREED TO RAISE FOR MEAT AND EGGS:

The Muscovy is a multipurpose breed for meat and eggs. The most popular Muscovy ducks raised are the white and black types. They lay from 80-120 eggs/yr and produce an excellent quality meat.

The Khaki Campbell breed is more efficient for egg production as compared to other breeds. A single duck is capable of producing 250-350 eggs/yr.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS:

Since ducks are small, a simple shed with one open side can provide adequate shelter. A 1 1/2 m x 5 m x 1 m high shelter can accommodate 40-50 adult ducks. To prevent the ducks from destroying vegetables and other crops, they should be confined in a fenced structure made from locally available materials.

Farm litter (e.g., rice straw) should be placed in the shed for laying and brooding purposes.

STARTING A BACKYARD PROJECT:

A beginner can start with 7 ducks -- one male (drake) and 6 female (ducklets). It is preferable to acquire ducks that are from 1-2 years of age.

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

Muscovy ducks are voracious eaters and eat practically anything they are fed. For maximum growth, ducks should be fed with natural, local feeds such as empty grains (rice), rice and corn bran, ipil-ipil leaves, golden snails, duck weed, Azolla, banana trunks, worms, etc. They should be fed three times a day and provided with fresh water always. Used tires or old cookings utensils can be used for waterers and feeders. Twenty-five ducks can be raised in a 1-hectare farm using onfarm feeds without commercial feeds.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

To prevent a disease outbreak, animals should be regularly vaccinated against common diseases (e.g., Newcastle, Fowl Pox or Fowl Cholera). Deworming and other health care practices, such as proper sanitation, correct feeding and proper care and management, must be strictly implemented to ensure a disease-free flock. New birds introduced into a flock should be quarantined to ensure that they are disease-free. Sick birds should also be isolated from healthy stock during treatment.

OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

Hatching

Ducks start to lay eggs after reaching 6 months of age. One medium-size duck is capable of hatching 12-15 eggs during the 30-33 day incubation period. Layers are usually productive from 1218 months. At the end of that production period, layers should be culled and eaten or sold.

The fertility of eggs can be determined using a simple technique known as candling. Eggs should be candled (on the 15th day of incubation) in a dark room using at candle, lamp or flashlight. Fertile eggs reveal a small dark spot with a network of blood vessels branching out from it or the eggs appear dark. Infertile eggs are clear with the yolk appearing as a floating shadow. Do not throw away infertile eggs; they are delicious as well as nutritious and can be eaten or processed into salted or hard-boiled eggs to be sold for extra income.

Duckling Rearing

Young ducklings must be kept warm and dry. It is best to keep them out of water until they are 2 weeks old. However, they must have a constant supply of fresh drinking water. The ducklings should be fed fine rice bran and boiled rice. Cracked corn or rice should be fed to them after they are several weeks old.

It is very important to protect the ducklings from predators such as cats. dogs; rodents, birds, etc. One method of protecting the ducklings is to confine the hen and her brood in a covered pen each night until the ducklings are 6-8 weeks old.

Marketing

Meat-type birds are ready to be slaughtered, dressed and marketed at 5-6 months of age.

DUCK MANAGEMENT WITHIN A RICE SYSTEM:

Two pen/shelter design options are presented here:

The duck pen and shelter is constructed over the irrigation canal The floor is made of bamboo slats spaced so as to allow the droppings to fall into the water below, but not to trap and injure the ducks' feet. The floor should slope slightly to allow the eggs to collect on one side of the pen, thus facilitating daily egg collection. This design allows the duck droppings to fall directly into the water and be carried to the rice paddies through the irrigation canal. One disadvantage to this design, however, is the possible danger of housing the ducks directly over the water during colder times of the year

The duck pen and shelter

The other design places the shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal. Cover the floor with 4-6 inches of dry bedding material i.e., rice straw. Remove the old bedding materials weekly and place them in a compost pit for future incorporation into the rice paddies as fertilizer.

The is shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal

Ducks should be given adequate time to forage for their food. The ducks should be released from their house in the morning after they have laid their eggs (about 7:00 a.m.). The most important consideration is that the ducks be released at the same time every morning. If they are released at different times every day, the change can upset them, causing them to stop laying eggs and even begin to molt. They should be herded back to the pen about 5:30 in the afternoon. Giving them some feeds regularly at this time also trains them to return to their pen.

Ducks should be released onto the ricefields only at certain times:

- During plowing and harrowing
- After the tillering stage, but not during the flowering and heading stage of the ricecrop
- After the rice has been harvested and threshed.

When it is not possible to release the ducks into the ricefield, they should be taken to an area where no crops are grown. If no such area is available, the ducks can be fed in confinement.

Backyard carabao raising for draft and milk

Backyard carabao raising for draft and milk

The carabao (swamp-type buffalo) is a prized symbol of a farmer's wealth and is an integral component of Philippine agriculture. Millions of crop farmers rely on this animal as the main source of draft power for almost all farming operations despite the introduction of small power tillers. The carabao provides animal protein in the form of meat and milk; as well as hides and horns (which have many economic uses) and manure, a potential organic fertilizer for the farm.

Carabaos are also excellent potential sources of milk as they can produce 300 to 800 kilograms of milk during a lactation period of 180 to 300 days. Murrah crossbreeds can produce 42% more milk than the native caracows. Carabao milk has a higher nutritive value than cow's milk and can be easily used in the production of soft white cheese (kesong puti).

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AT BACKYARD LEVEL:

A. Breeds and Breedings

1. Carabao breeds commonly found in the Philippines:

a. Draft type -- Philippine carabao and Thailand buffalo
b. Dairy type -- Murrah and Nili/ravi

2. Selection of breeding animals

Selection of breeding animals

a. Caracow/caraheifer to be selected should be 3-4 years old, with well-developed udders, large and uniformly shaped teats, possess a docile and good dairy temperament, angular form, be more lean than meaty and be an offspring of a known good milker.

b. Carabull or carasteer to be selected should be 4 to 6 years old, healthy and vigorous, possess a masculine character, medium to short neck, massive with a blocky conformation and have a heavy and welldeveloped body. Additionally, the animal should have well-developed fore and hindquarters, be powerful, low-set and alert and of good temperament. The male animals are best used for work purposes.

c. Judicious culling and selection of animals must be practiced in order to maintain the best animals in a herd.

3. Breeding:

a. Natural breeding is the common practice using the best carabull available to mate caracow/caraheifer. This is considered the best due to the silent heat (30-56%) among caracows.

b. Artificial insemination (A.l.), however, is considered the easiest and cheapest method of improving local animals using prostaglandin hormone end frozen semen, if Al technician and equipment are accessible in your area.

4. Reasons to crossbreed native caracow (Philippine carabao) with selected Indian Murrah buffalo bull (for more comparative information see Table 1).

a. The offspring is bigger, taller and more active.
b. Crossbreed caracows produce more milk (42% more) than native caracows.
c. Crossbreed offspring have a higher growth rate (30-40%) than native carabaos.
d. Crossbreed animals possess better draft ability in upland condition.

Note: Based on research studies, crossbreed caracows in the third generation (5/8 Murrah and 3/8 Philippine carabao), when compared with pure breed animals, have comparable levels of milk production.

B. Housing Requirements

1. Provide a dry, clean and well-ventilated shed made of nipa, bamboo and/or wood. It is advisable to cement the floor to facilitate cleaning. Trees can be grown around the shed, to serve as a windbreak and provide extra shade during the summer months. Animals should always be kept in dry stalls in the evening and under the shed during the summer months.

2. Construct a compost or manure pit nearby for disposal of left-over feed litter and manure. A carabao produces 10.8 kg. manure/day or 6,853 kg. in 360 days (1.22% N. 0.85% P and 0.79% K)

Housing

C. Feeds and Feeding Management

1. Carabaos are usually raised in semi-confinement, which involves tethering the animal for 810 hours/day on native pasture.

2. Low-cost feeds for carabao

a. For light to medium work (4 to 6 hours/day).
b. Before and after work, carabaos should receive plenty of clean drinking water. When in a heated condition, however, they should be allowed to cool off before watering. Work carabaos may lick salt in a box or may receive salt in their feed, (for example, one handful/head, three times a week.)

3. Supplementation of urea-molasses-mineral block to diet of rice straw or summer grazing pasture is sufficient to maintain liveweight.

4. Clean feed, water and a source of salt should tee constantly provided to animals in the pen/stall area.

D. Health Management

1. Immunization against hemorrhagic septicemia and foot and mouth disease should be administered every six months or at least once a year. Animals should be dewormed against liver fluke and intestinal worms as a preventive measure et least once a year using herbal treatments (betel nut & ipil-ipil) or commercial dewormers.

2. Control lice and other external parasites at least 34 times a year. During summer the common practice by farmers of shaving the body hair of their carabao helps to control external parasites.

3. Because carabaos have few sweat glands and little hair, the animals should be regularly bathed to keep the animal cool during summer months (especially draft animals).

E. Other Management Practices

1. Carabao as Draft Animal

Farmers use carabao as draft in their farming system for the following reasons:

a. It is an affordable, low-cost technology and the investment can pay for itself in a short time period.
b. The carabao and harness are available locally and maintenance can be conducted by the farmers.
c. After a carabao can no longer serve as a draft animal, it can become a source of carabao meat and meat by-products. Carabao meat (carabeef) has 46% less cholesterol than beef.

A well-trained carabao works efficiently and will demand a higher price. Ideally, farmers should raise their own draft carabao or purchase them while they are still young. Young carabao (about 2 years old) are easier to tame and train.

The draft capacity of an animal increases with its weight. For example, a 300 kg. carabull can pull a moldboard plow or harrow with a 30 kg. draft requirement for 8 hours. But, if the animal is made to pull 130 kg. it will only work for 3 to 4 hours before tiring. The animal must be allowed to assume a natural pace to produce an extended, rather than a concentrated effort.

To prevent abortion, a pregnant caracow should only be made to work on a limited basis. especially during the first 6 months of pregnancy. A newly calved caracow should not be used for draft until the calf reaches 3 to 4 months of age.

Tips on training carabao for work

Training carabao for work

a. Touch the animal constantly.
b. Slowly expose the animal to crowded places (i.e., along the side of the road) by riding its back.
c. Training can be done from 1 to 3 hours during cool periods of the day (i.e., early morning or late afternoon).
d. While leading the animal to pasture, place a well-fitted yoke with a smooth surface on the animal's neck and attach a sledge to train the animal to pull.
e. Then, train the carabao to pull the harrow on loose ground for an easy start.
f. Finally, train the animal to pull the plow on a plowed field during cod periods until the animal gets used to pulling heavy loads.

2. Carabao as Source of Milk

Although the carabao is a slow milk producer, its mliking capacity can be improved through proper management, systematic breeding and proper milking techniques. Local carabaos and upgrades should be tapped as a major source of milk and milk byproducts. A caracow can produce 2 to 2.5 liters of milk daily by hand-milking.

Milking Procedures and Management:

Caracows should be milked in a clean, dry place. The caracow should be cleaned to remove dirt that may fall into the milking can. The calf is allowed to stay with the caracow for 2 to 4 weeks after birth and then separated in the evening to prevent the calf from suckling. After milking, the calf can stay with the caracow.

The most common milking method is hand-milking.

1. The animal is tied to protect the milker.
2. The milker should wash his/her hands with soap and water.
3. Prepare a clean milking bucket, properly covered with a clean cloth.
4. Wash and massage the udder and teats with a clean cloth soaked in warm water.
5. Strip the teat to check if the milk is clean (organo/eptic test) and if no abnormalities are observed.
6. If nothing abnormal is observed, milk the animal until the milk flow stops.
7. If possible, the animal should be milked at the same time everyday by the same person. Concentrate should be provided at milking time (helps to increase milk output).
8. Pasteurize the milk collected from the caracow. Do not attempt to add wafer or en adulterant as it will spoil the quality of milk. Heat the milk up to 145 F on a double boiler. When it starts boiling, continue to stir the milk with a spoon while heating for 30 minutes. Then cool the milk by replacing the hot water with cool water for 30 minutes at about 42 F. Place the milk in a bottle. The milk is now ready for market or can be stored in a refrigerator for 3-4 days.

Comparative Gross Composition of Carabao's Milk, Buffalo's Milk and Cow's Milk

LOW-COST FEEDS FOR CARABAOS:

1. For light to medium work (carabao working for 4 to 6 hours/day)

Feeding Ration Recommended for en average-sized Carabao

2. Hard Work -- Carabao employed whole day for plowing/cart work/pulling heavy logs in the forest with only 2 hours rest at noon.

Feeding Ration Recommended for en average-sized Carabao

SOME IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT CARABAO AND ITS UPGRADES

* Breeding occurs any time of the year but more during the rainy season and cooler months.

Azolla meal for layers and broilers

Although most people think of Azolla as fertilizer, one way of beating the high cost of feeds for farm animals is by supplementing the animals' regular diets with Azolla. Drying, ensiling and other feed treatments using fresh Azolla are simple and effective ways to ensure that optimum benefits can be obtained from Azolla by farm animals.

Azolla meal for layers and broilers

MATERIALS NEEDED:

· freshly harvested azolla
· commercial layer or broiler rations
· trays with slits or perforated bottoms for drying Azolla
· commercial grinder (gilingan) for grinding Azolla into powder or feed bag for holding Azolla during manual crushing
· empty motor oil can (1 liter) for measuring the ingredients.

Materials needed

PROCEDURE:

1. Harvest Azolla from the propagation pond. Wash thoroughly to remove soil and other residues. Do not use Azolla which has been exposed to pesticides.

Procedure

2. Place the Azolla on trays and sundry it for 3-7 days or until it-turns brown. Azolla is sufficiently dry when it crumbles when squeezed.

Place the Azolla on trays

3. Grind the dried Azolla to form a powder resembling coffee. If no grinder is available, place the dried Azolla in a feed bag and step on it until it is crushed.

Grind the dried Azolla

4. Combine the Azolla meal with commercial layer or broiler rations at a ratio of 1:9.

Combine the Azolla meal with commercial layer

Note: For growing native and upgraded chickens like Cantonese, Azolla meal can be given as a supplement to ordinary low-cost feeds.

SOURCE: UPLB, National Azolla Action Program

Azolla silage as feed for growing pigs

Aside from being used as green manure by farmers, Azolla can also be used as feed supplement for growing pigs. It has a crude protein content of 17-28% and contains amino acids, vitamins and trace minerals. Unlike ipil-ipil (Leucaena), Azolla has no toxic substance (mimosine).

When Azolla is ensiled, its moisture content is lowered to a manageable level, improving its nutritional value. When the silage is added to commercially available concentrate mixes, the resulting mixture easily meets the nutritional requirements of growing pigs.

Azolla silage as feed for growing pigs

The following materials are needed in preparing Azolla silage:

· net bags or sacks for drip-drying Azolla
· trays with slits or perforated bottoms for further drying
· empty kerosene and motor oil cans for measuring ingredients
· pails for storing the ensiled Azolla
· plastic sheets and rubber strips for sealing the pails.

PROCEDURE:

1. Collect Azolla from the propagation pond. Make sure the Azolla is free from soil and other debris by thoroughly washing it. Do not use Azolla which has been exposed to pesticides.

Collect Azolla from the propagation pond

2. Place the harvested Azolla in net begs or sacks and allow to drip for 2-3 hours.

Place the harvested Azolla in net begs

3. Transfer the dried Azolla to the trays to allow further drying and to provide good ventilation. Spread out the Azolla end turn over 2-3 times a day for even drying.

Transfer the dried Azolla to the trays

Azolla is dried from a moisture content of 95% to 65-70%*. Drying takes about 2 days during sunny weather and 3 days in cloudy weather.

TWO AZOLLA SILAGE FORMULATIONS:

Sillage 1

· Sillage 1 - 70% Azolla + 30% corn

Mix 1 kerosene can (balde) of dried Azolla, with 4 1/2 motor oil cans of corn. Place the mixture in a pail. (If possible, use plastic pails for storing ensiled Azolla. Pails made of tin will rust.) Use plastic sheets to cover the pails and rubber strips to tightly seal the container and keep oxygen out. Let the mixture ferment for at least 1 week.

· Silage 2 - 70% Azolla + 25% corn + 5% molasses

Silage 2

Mix 1 kerosene can of dried Azolla, with 4 motor oil cans of corn. Add 1/3 motor oil can of molasses. Follow the same succeeding procedures as in Silage.

Note: If corn is not available, other carbohydrate sources like rice bran. cassava meal, etc., can be used.

It is recommended that each pail of ensiled Azolla be enough for one feeding to minimize oxygen combining with the mixture when the cover is removed. Oxygen must be kept out to prevent the growth of mold and worms (maggots) in the mixture.

When, the Azolla silage is fed to growing pigs, it may be added to mixed grower ration (MUIR) or commercial grower mix (CGM)

Ensiled Azolla can be stored up to 2 months without affecting the nutritive value of the feedstuff, as long as the container is kept sealed. Once opened, the silage must be consumed within a week.

Amounts needed at 25 percent Azolla silage supplementation

Amounts needed at 10 percent Azolla silage supplementation

SOURCE: National Azolla Action Program c/o Office of the Dean UPLB College of Agriculture
College, Laguna 3720

Multipurpose trees for the lowlands

Trees are an important component of the lowland ecosystem. They provide readily available firewood, poles and stakes and protect the field from strong winds. Trees also improve the microclimate of the farm and attract birds and other beneficial insects, thereby reducing insect infestation.

Multipurpose trees give additional incentive for cultivation. The leaves are excellent for green manure. They grow fast and coppice easily thus reducing the need to replant after every harvest.

There are different species of multipurpose trees. For lowland areas, however, they should be tolerant or moderately tolerant to occasional water logging.

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (1)

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (2)

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (3)

Additional livestock feed resources

Additional livestock feed resources

The fact that the best land is devoted to food or cash crop production should not allow livestock production to be ruled out. Marginal lands can be used to pasture animals as well as to produce animal fodder in order to optimize scarce land resources. Farmers view livestock production not in competition with crops, but rather as a complementary farm operation which can convert crop residues and farm by-products not fit for human consumption or market into valuable animal products.

Increasing the supply and quality of livestock fodder has positive effects for the whole farm system, in addition to improving the health and productivity of the animals. Livestock are an integral component of the nutrient cycling system of a farm and directly or indirectly affect three aspects of nutrient cycling:

1. Nutrients are redistributed on the farm when they are brought up from deeper soil levels by trees whose leaves are fed to livestock.

2. Nutrient availability to plants is increased when crop residues and other feeds are converted to manure.

3. An increase in nitrogen supply is brought about when legume forage are grown and fed to the animals.

Therefore, there is a need to integrate livestock production into other farming components by harnessing marginal farm areas for the production of livestock resources.

GRASSES AND LEGUMINOUS TREES ALONG EARTHEN DIKES, IRRIGATION CANALS AND ROAD BANKS:

These areas often constitute the neglected and waste areas of the farm and are usually left to grasses and weeds such as cogon (Imperata cylindrica), talahib (Saccharum spontaneum), aguingay (Rottboella exaltata), amorseko (Chrysopogon aciculatus). Paddy dikes are usually repaired before planting the rice and once the rice is planted, they can serve as animal fodder sources of grasses and tree legumes. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) on dikes, for example, can produce more than 1.5 kg dry matter (DM)/yr/linear m. Andropogon yielded 36.7 tons of DM/ha when planted along the dikes. Leguminous trees and shrubs can provide high protein fodder using species such as madre de cacao (Gliricidia septum), ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and others. Two-year old Gliricidia, for example, produced 5 kg DM/tree/yr of top quality fodder when planted 2 m apart.

Along the banks of roads and irrigation canals, Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and Napier grow well. In waterlogged areas, Para grass (Panicum purpurescens) thrives well even when it is cut at 4-6 week intervals.

Grasses and legumes planted along earthen dikes, irrigation canals and road banks not only provide feed, but also help to control soil erosion.

INTENSIVE FEED GARDEN ALONG FARM BOUNDARIES:

Other often-neglected areas are farm boundaries. Some farmers install live fences and barbed wire to control passage of humans and stray animals. Farmers in Batangas and Cavite (Philippines) maximize the use of farm boundaries by planting hedgerows of intensive feed gardens (IFG) as potential sources of fodder for their livestock. They interplant Leucaena and Gliricidia with Napier grass and/or other grasses. This system provides the livestock with nutritious fodder throughout the year. During the wet season (June- December), came feed on fresh grasses and legumes, while during the dry season (January-May), they eat green fodder from leguminous trees supplemented with hay (dried rice straw or corn stover).

In Bali, Indonesia, most farmers use a Three-strata Forage System (TSFS), a technology of planting and harvesting three different strata (one composed of a grass or ground legume, another of a shrub legume and a third of a fodder tree) to provide a source of livestock fodder throughout the year. The first stratum consists of grasses (Cenchrus ciliaris, Urochloa mosambisensis, Panicum maximum) and ground legumes (Centrosema pubescens, Stylosanthes hamata, S. scabra) which provide fodder during the wet season. The second stratum consists of shrub legumes (Gliricidia, Leucaena, Acacia vellosa) which provide fodder during the wet and dry seasons. The third stratum consists of fodder trees (Ficus poacellie, Lannea corromandilica, Hibiscus tilliaceus) which provide fodder during the dry season.

Intensive feed garden along farm boundaries

Note: Fodder grasses should be cut after leaf dew dries in the morning (between 9:00 and 10:00) as a precaution against possible liver fluke infection.

Planting Arrangement of the Grasses Legume Shrubs and Fooder trees in the TSPS.

The botanical composition of the forage offered to cattle will vary according to:

The TSFS offers many advantages to a small farmer with livestock. The utilization of small parcels of land is maximized by combining cash or food crops with animal fodder species. For example, the plot in this diagram is one-quarter hectare (2500 sq.m) and comprises three distinct areas and sources of production: a 1,600-sq.m core area planted to traditional cash or food crops (the crop residues can also be fed to livestock); a 900-sq.m peripheral area subdivided into 45 sq.m areas planted to improved grasses and legumes; and the 200 m circumference area planted to fodder trees and shrub legumes which form a hedgerow fence around the area.

Livestock, an income-generating farm component, are integrated into the farm using a cut-and carry and stall feeding system. With the increased supply of higher quality fodder, 12 % increases in growth rates have been documented and the carrying capacity of a 1 hectare area can be increased to 4 animals/ha. With the combination of the species within the three strata, forage production can increase by as much as 48%. Through the use of drought-resistant species, forage is available throughout the year. The grasses, shrubs and trees also help reduce water run-off, thus reducing soil erosion. Lastly, the legume shrubs and trees can produce 1 1/2 tons of firewood/yr.

HAY PRODUCTION AND STORAGE:

The mandala or straw stack is a prominent symbol in rice-growing communities. Rice straw is the by-product of rice after threshing and is a potential feed source for carabaos during the summer lean months. It is rich in carbohydrates and is available when pasture grasses are affected by drought or when all of the farm area are planted to field crops.

Farmers in the rice-producing areas of the Philippines store large quantities of rice straw after the rice harvest by sundrying and storing them as bales in a covered barn or as loose hay in the oval-shaped, compact mandala, supported in the middle by a bamboo pole firmly anchored in the ground. The mandala is located in an elevated spot of the farm near to where the livestock are kept. The upper portion should be covered to protect the straw from the rain. Rice straw can be stored longer if its moisture content (MC) is between 13-14%. But, if the MC is above 20%, heat may be produced, causing spontaneous combustion and possible fire or inducing mold growth which reduces the feed value of the straw. An average-sized mandala contains about 1,200 kg DM and has 3.3% crude protein (PCARRD, 1978).

Hay production and storage

In India, the straw stack is located in one corner of a field or on the roof of the animal shed. The posts are made of cut stones and large- boulders are utilized for the foundation.

Straw stack

In other parts of India, another storage system is used. Large stones are used to build a foundation. Then, bamboo poles are laid upon the stones close to each other as a slatted floor. Rice straw, pearl millet and sorghum straw are tightly pressed and compacted into the space. The materials must be tightly compacted to prevent exposure to air which can cause spoilage. The top tapers to the sides and is covered with canvas or plastic sheets to protect it from the rain.

Plastic sheet

Another dried roughage which can be stored is corn stover, the portion of the plant left in the field once the ears have been harvested. The whole plant is left in the field should be stored and protected from rain, otherwise it mildews disintegrates, making it unfit for feed.

OTHER CROP RESIDUES:

1. Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

In sugarcane plantations which use many carabaos, sugarcane tops comprise their only source of daily feed during the milling season. Instead of drying and burning the cane leaves and tops in the field, they should be collected,' cried and stored for future use. Whether sugarcane tops are dried or green, they are palatable and relished by carabaos and cattle. They contain a large amount of digestible carbohydrates in sugar form.

2. Pineapple (Ananas saliva)

In areas where pineapples are grown as a cash crop, the leaves and damaged fruit can be used as animal fodder. After the plants have borne fruit for 2 years, they are removed to make way for new crops. The plants are gathered and the spiny portion removed and cut into 2-3 inch pieces before given to the animals.

3. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea)

Peanuts not only produce quality, nutritious food legume! but can yield up to 8-10 T fodder/ha. Once the peanuts have been harvested, the vine can be fed as peanut hay. The nutritive value is high because of its protein content (10.8-11.9%), as well as its potassium, vitamin A and calcium contents. An additional advantage is its high palatability. For best

· results, the vines should be dried well and protected from rain and dew.

4. "Miramais" (tentatively identified as Sorghum bicolor)

Farmers in Pangasinan province (Philippines) use a portion of their farm to cultivate this indigenous grass, which is similar in appearance to corn. It is a hardy plant which grows well in well-drained, fertile soils and can withstand drought, pests and diseases. It is usually planted before the end of the dry season (October-November) and is cut 30 cm above the ground before it develops a tassel. The stems and leaves are fed and are relished by animals. The plant will develop a tiller and ratoon to produce more forage.

Shelterbelts for rice farms

Shelterbelts are windbreaks, specifically rows of trees planted to serve as protection from excessively strong winds. Shelterbelts modify a farm's microclimate and reduce crop damage from the force of wind. Depending upon the height, placement and orientation of the shelterbelt along a certain stretch, the shelterbelt can also:

· decrease temperature and relative humidity
· decrease plant and soil water loss (evapotranspiration) and the entry of hot air to the farm (advection)
· increase the rate of carbon dioxide replenishment.

The most beneficial effect of shelterbelts is the reduction of mechanical injury, e.g., leaf defoliation and lodging in areas experiencing high wind speeds. There are reports showing that shelterbelts increase plant growth and yield.

The effectiveness of shelterbelts depends essentially on the interaction of two factors:

1. Height of shelterbelt: Higher shelterbelts protect a longer stretch of crops on the leeward side (the side protected by the shelterbelt).

2. Porosity: The degree of perforation is usually dependent on foliage qualities such as leaf arrangements, sizes and shapes. More perforated barriers allow less turbulent winds to blow and protect an even longer stretch on the leeward side.

Porosity

2. Orientation. To effectively protect crops, 2-3 rows of shelterbelts should be oriented perpendicular to the predominant direction of strong or typhoon winds.

Orientation

3. Placement. Shelterbelts may be placed near farm boundaries, in areas not used for crop production, or near farm-house boundaries.

Unless rice bunds are widened to accommodate a row of shelterbelts, it would not be ideal to place shelterbelts in the bunds because:

- of waterlogging problems
- there will be competition among crops for water, light and nutrients
- it may be an alternate host to rice insect pests and diseases
- it may hamper field operations.

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.) Farm management (introduction...) A guide to decision-making for technology adoption based on production costs Simple record-keeping for LIRP Workshop to develop the low-external input rice production technology information kit Rice production situationer in the Philippines

Low-external Input Rice Production (IIRR, 292 p.)

Farm management

A guide to decision-making for technology adoption based on production costs

Production costs are those expenses which farmers encounter while producing a crop. These costs include fixed costs (i.e., irrigation fees, land rental, etc.) as well as variable costs (i.e., seed, fertilizer, labor, etc.). Fixed costs are paid by farmers just to begin farm operations; in other words, you have to rent land and pay for irrigation to be able to begin to sow a crop. Variable costs, as the name indicates, vary according to the mode and scale of production. Therefore, variable costs of farm operations provide the best opportunity to small-scale farmers to modify their mode of production and thus reduce their cash expenses. If a farmer has high production costs, but has limited capital he/she can be caught in a cash-flow squeeze, especially during rice-producing months.

The LIRP technologies outlined in this kit are labor or knowledge-intensive rather than capitalintensive. increased labor requirements or the introduction of integrated management techniques are offered as alternatives to capital-poor farmers who may not have access to capital resources for investment in farm technologies (i.e., equipment, more land, hired labor, etc.). The costs of those capital resources, in an informal credit system, comprise a hidden cost of production and can reach 40-50% in four months. Any reduction in production costs can be assumed to save an additional 25-30%, at least, since many farmers use informal credit arrangements.

Since the cost of capital is high and may not be available to small farmers, labor must be substituted to maintain or increase production. However, the opportunity cost (the peso value of that labor if used in an alternative activity, i.e., day labor, driving a jeepney, etc.) of that labor may also be high, as a farmer may value time for leisure or family activities or may require time for other income-generating activities. If a farmer has an option to earn income from an off-farm source, even if the income earned is low, the farmer may opt to earn that income because it is IMMEDIATELY available. Thus, the opportunity cost to an LIRP technology may be high and this fact must be considered when making a decision to adopt (or not to adopt) a technology. For example, if a certain technology requires extra labor at a time when a farmer needs to earn disposable cash (i.e., to purchase food or medicine, pay school fess, etc.), then the technology will not be implemented by the farmer in that situation.

This paper will present actual production cost data from Cavite, Philippines, farmers. Using these data as an example, areas of rice production in which costs can be reduced or eliminated and in which potential yield increases lie will be identified. Pages are included which divide the LIRP technologies into groupings based on rice production activities. Therefore, if a farmer decides that he/she is spending too much on weed control, for example, and would like to reduce those costs, this quick reference can be used to identify those specific technologies which might be adopted in order to reduce weed control costs. Once a certain technology has been selected, a farmer can then use partial budgeting to determine if the introduction of that technology would be advisable, from a purely economical viewpoint. A partial budget example on the use of Azolla as a bio-fertilizer will be presented.

Using actual rice production costs of Philippine (Cavite Province) farmers, the following cost of production framework can be established:

Variable Costs (per cropping)

** Highest variable cost/ha.

Those areas with the highest production cost/ha. (based on the data presented) are seed, land preparation, transplanting, fertilizer, weed control and pest control. While the actual figures and relative rankings may vary (even widely) across regions or countries, these areas of production costs can be reduced or even eliminated using LIRP technologies. Some cost-reducing strategies for each of the six areas are presented here as alternatives to existing high-external input modes of production.

SEED:

Many farmers are currently using about 125 kg. of seeds per hectare, more than double the recommended seeding rate of 60-75 kg/ha. The expense for seed in our example is more than P600 for the 125 kg of seeds. Oftentimes, these seeds may be of poor quality, particularly with a low germination rate. Farmers can reduce their seed costs in two ways: cut in half the amount of the poor quality seed they use or buy (savings of more than P300); or only buy 60-75 kg good quality seed. With the use of a drum seeder, seed requirements for one hectare can be reduced to 50-100 kg.

LAND PREPARATION:

The land preparation costs of over P1,000 presented in our example can be reduced by a variety of strategies. Minimum tillage can potentially cut tillage costs by one-third. Zero-tillage would almost completely reduce tillage costs and offers the potential for producing an early crop. A zerotillage test with no fertilizer or pesticide yielded 2.2 T/ha.

TRANSPLANTING:

One of the most labor-intensive activities in rice production is transplanting. In areas where labor is costly or unavailable, farmers can reduce production costs by using a manually-operated rice transplanter. In our example, transplanting costs are equal to P1,200 per cropping or P2,400 for 2 croppings. Assuming 6 mandays of labor per cropping (6 mandays x 2 croppings x P40/md) and P900 depreciation, transplanting costs using a manually-operated transplanter can be reduced to P1,380, almost half the cost of traditional transplanting methods. In areas where labor is plentiful and/or inexpensive, the introduction and use of a transplanter could have negative social ramifications.

FERTILIZER:

Savings on fertilizer costs probably hold the most immediate and promising potential for reducing production costs. In our example, farmers have spent almost P600 for fertilizer and the cost of labor for application of that fertilizer. Two-thirds of fertilizer costs (almost P400 for our example) can be saved through the use of big-fertilizers. Sesbania rostrata as a green manure, for example, can easily supply more than 75% of the Nitrogen (N) needed by one rice crop. Many tests show that it can produce all of the necessary N.

Azolla can provide nearly all the Nitrogen needed for a rice crop when multiplied and complemented with enough phosphorous fertilizer. Azospirilla has demonstrated fertilizer savings of one-third. Fertilizer costs can easily be reduced (by 20% or more) without compromising yields by purchasing less fertilizer, but managing it more efficiently. Integrating legumes into the farm system can reduce fertilizer costs by as much as 50%, as well as providing food, fodder and/or fuel.

The LIRP technologies offer a variety of alternatives to reduce the amount or entirely forego the use of petroleum-based chemical fertilizers.

WEED CONTROL:

Over P800 was spent by the farmers in our example to control weeds in the rice paddy. Most of this cost accounted for labor (almost P600), but over P200 was spent in the purchase of herbicides. By using a rotary weeder, all cash outlays for herbicide can be saved, although the use

of labor will increase. The weeder will also aid in building soil fertility by incorporating weeds (and azolla, if used) into the soil to decompose and provide organic matter. However, the non-use of herbicides will allow the return of aquatic life such as frogs, fish, etc. The artificial culturing of fish in the rice paddy also becomes possible.

PEST CONTROL:

Pest control costs can be cut in half simply by using the sequential sampling method of pest control. For the farmers in our example, that could mean a savings of almost P150. Botanical pesticides, biological control techniques and soil amendments can almost eliminate the need for costly chemical pesticides. Selecting the proper chemicals, using them at the minimum required rate and practicing need-based rather than calendar-based spraying will also reduce pest control costs.

POTENTIAL YIELD INCREASES:

The potential exists for increased yields using the interventions described above not only with lowland rice but also with upland crops following rice. The increase in organic matter plus improved management practices can double yields over the average (300 kg/ha of mung bean, for example, increased to 600 kg/ha) with minimal cost.

Additional components of a rice-based farming system also hold potential for increasing income. Integrating animals such as fish, duck and milk/draft animals into rice-based systems offers the opportunity for a more stable income as well as providing a food/income "cushion" in case of crop failure. Adding a vegetable component can help ease cash flow problems and improve family nutrition. Additional savings can be realized in the form of labor and/or time spent collecting fodder and fuelwood. With sample supplies available from under-utilized areas of the farm, the family will spend less time in search of those farm inputs. By eliminating the use of inorganic pesticides, free food for the family can be realized as natural populations of frogs, mudfish, catfish, etc. return to the rice paddies.

PARTIAL BUDGETING:

Partial budgeting is a simple, useful method used in estimating the returns received from introducing a new technology which affects only a part of the overall farm enterprise. The partial budget can show a farmer whether an increased cost (in capital or labor) will be offset by the value of the expected increase in yield (or production). A planned change should be implemented only if the value of the expected increase in yield (or production) is greater than the expected increase in costs.

For example, a farmer has looked at his cost of production structure and has determined that his fertilizer costs are too high. He has used the LIRP kit to identify the use of azolla as a fertilizer alternative and would now like to calculate the estimated change in his income due to the use of azolla as a big-fertilizer.

Estimated change in income (if positive, a gain in income; if negative, a loss in income) = Column II Less Column I

P150 = P695 - P545

This example shows that while a farmer using azolla as a big-fertilizer would encounter added costs of P265 (almost entirely labor costs) and a decreased yield of 80 kg, the cost would be offset by additional savings in chemical fertilizer and hog feed. (It is also worth-mentioning that decreased yields as a result of using azolla will usually only be experienced in the first or second croppings. Then, yields will, in fact, surpass those from inorganic fertilizers.) Therefore, if this farmer is comfortable with increasing his labor input to the farm, his actual cash outlays can be reduced by over P400.

ALTERNATIVES FOR REDUCING PRODUCTION COSTS OR CAPITAL NEEDS

SEEDS
· Reducing Seed Needs
- Drum seeder/Direct seeding
- Dapog/Wet-Bed
- Straight row planting
- Regrowth (dapog)

· Producing Own Seeds/Selecting Varieties
- Traditional vs modern varieties
- Seed selection techniques
- Clonal propagation
· Improving Storage and Germinability
- Seed dormancy
- Seed storage

TRANSPLANTING
1. Manually-operated transplanter
2. Line markers/straight-row planting

WATER MANAGEMENT

· Conserving Water
- Water management for drought-prone areas
- Sorjan· Blue-green Algae
- Increase organic matter with green manures
- Water impounding
· Obtaining Better Production from Available Water
- Integrated cropping systems
- Rice-fish culture
- Crop rotations
- Weed control

WEED CONTROL

· Cultural Management Practices
- Crop rotation/intercroppig/relay cropping
- Increasing organic matter
- Water management
- Mulching
- Thorough land preparation
- Row spacing
· Low-Cost Weeding "Tools"
- Rotary weeder
- Straight row planting
- Azolla
- Ducks

LAND PREPARATION

1. Using carabao for draft
2. Straight-row planting
3. Sesbania slicer for weedy areas
4. Reducing land preparation time by keeping land covered with "plants" not "weeds" minimum tillage
zero tillage
5. Rice straw utilization
6 Ratooning

FERTILIZER
· Green Manures and Green Manure Utilization
- Azolla
- Indigofera
- Crotalaria
- Sesbania aculeata or other locally available legumes
- Sesbania rostrata
- Leucaena leucocephala
· Nitrogen Fertilizer Management
· Animal Manures
· Farm Wastes
- Rice straw
- Rice hull
- Composts
· Azospirillum
· Intercropping/Relay Cropping/Crop Rotation
· Nutrient Cycling
· Off-Season Planting Legumes
(mung bean cowpea soybeans)

PEST CONTROL

· Cultural Management Practices
- Synchronized planting
- Crop rotation/intercropping/relay cropping
- Sanitation
- Fertilizer management
- Water management
- Plant spacing
- Botanical control
- Low-cost control of Golden Snail
- Planting of resistant varieties
· Major Insect Pests and Their Economic Threshold
- Beneficial insects
- Safe usage of pesticides (need base spraying affected areas only)
- Spot treatment (spraying)

Cost-benefit analysis for low-input rice production (LIRP) technology

Cost-benefit analysis is an important and essential tool in measuring the net effect of a certain technology. Farmers will adopt a technology only when the benefits derived from it will compensate for their labor and other costs. However, environmental and social costs and benefits must also be considered.

Cost-benefit analysis

A guide for technicians, farmers and other agriculture enthusiasts to determine the costs as well as the benefits of components that are included in the technology is presented here.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:

A. COSTS

The costs of the LIRP will perhaps involve slightly decreased rice harvests at least in the beginning and during the transition period to a less chemical-dependent farming system. Labor demand at harvest may also decline slightly .

Another cost will be an increase in labor requirements in crop establishment and maintenance. This can be seen as both a cost (less leisure or alternative production or more work days for the farmer/farm family) and as a benefit (increases in demand for agricultural labor to benefit landless families in the area).

B. BENEFITS

The benefits we foresee include economic, environmental and social aspects. The economic benefits are most obvious.

1. Economic benefits

· Increased net incomes to farmers through reduced cost of production, even in the face of possible slight decreases in crop yield.
· In the long run, improved soil condition and farming practices should lead to increased gross harvests.
· Maximum utilization of scarce resources through improved farming practices. Use of credit, capital, fertilizers (both organic and inorganic), labor, herbicides and pesticides as needed will be maximized.
· Savings in expenditures for family health maintenance and improvement due to reduced potential pollution and improved incomes.
· The development of linkages for small equipment repair, production of non-chemical inputs within the community, encouraging local resource use.

2. Environmental Benefits

· Reduction of pollution of streams, ground water and soils through minimal use of petroleum-based chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

· Improvement in soil conditions due to use of green manure, crops which improve soil consistency and minimization of soil damage due to rice monocropping.

· Improvement in the health and nutrition of farm families due to declines in potential chemical poisoning hazards, increases in healthy farm produce and increases in net income.

· Presentation and reintroduction of environmentally important indigenous seed varieties of rice, as well as other crops and livestock grown as a part of an integrated farming system.

· Optional use of scarce water resources.

3. Social Benefits

· Perpetuation of traditional beneficial farming tradition encouraging the stewardship of the land among farm family members.

· Encouragement of family participation in farming activities leading to closer family ties and relationships within the family unit and across generations -- preserving advantages of extended family relationships.

· Encouragement of bayanihan (mutual help/sharing) within the community.

· Greater community self-reliance and less dependency on outsiders.

· Greater control over own resources can stimulate greater political awareness and power resulting from improved economic condition and revival of other community organizations (i.e., marketing cooperative) due to new organizational relationships.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS:

A. METHODOLOGY

1. Production yield

· Gross production

- Gross yield -- Total harvest or produce in terms of weight or its equivalent
- Gross income -- Cash value of the harvest
- Land area cultivated.

· Production share (For those areas in which harvesting and threshing costs are paid as a share of total production.)

- Harvester's share
- Thresher's share -- Thresher share as payment for services.

· Farmer's share of production

- Difference between gross income (yield) and production share [gross income (yield) less production share].

2. Farm expenses

· Farm inputs

- List all inputs that have been used:

-- crop production (seed, fertilizer, pesticide, equipment, etc.)
-- livestock (stock, feed, medicine, equipment, etc.)

- All farm inputs should be specified and quantified (actual purchase cost).

· Labor expenses

- List all activities conducted during the production phases of rice, fish, vegetables, green manures, livestock, fodder, etc.
- Labor should be quantified (days or hours) and costed (actual expense).

· Other expenses

- List all other incurred expenses not grouped under farm inputs or labor expenses (e.g., rentals, transportation, storage, irrigation fees, permits, etc.).

· Total farm expenses (farm inputs plus labor expenses plus other expenses).

3. Net farm income

· Difference between farmer share of production (gross income less production share) and total farm expenses (farm inputs plus labor expenses plus other expenses).

B. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

· Consolidated data should be presented in tabular form (except for technology profile which should be presented in a separate sheet).
· Two types of analyses should be executed:

a. Financial analysis (see sample format): cost benefit analysis
b. Immediate impact analysis: effect of the technology in terms of social and environmental benefits.

· Further analysis of economic data can be conducted through the use of simple formulas to calculate farm returns using the LIRP technology. Listed below are three basic formulas which show farm returns to specific farm resources (materials and labor).

· Returns to labor can show a per hour (or per day) value of labor inputs; in other words how much return is received for every unit of labor invested.

Returns to labor = (gross production (income) - farm inputs and other expenses) / labor expenses

· Returns to farm family labor can show the amount of return received for every unit of family labor invested. This calculation can be computed only when the amount and cost of family and off-farm labor is differentiated.

Returns to family labor (hours or days) = (gross production - farm inputs and expenses - cost of hired labor) / amount of family labor (hours or days)

· Returns to farm resources can show the amount of return received for the amount of on-farm resources invested. This calculation can help a farmer to place special emphasis on the value of on-farm resources used within the system.

Returns to farm =gross production (income) -
Resources /ha expenses of non-farm resources

SAMPLE FORMAT

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
(Technology Title)