Infant Feeding in Emergencies: A Guide for Mothers (WHO, 1997, 48 p.)

Prepared for the

Programme for Nutrition Policy,
Infant Feeding and Food Security
Lifestyles and Health Unit
World Health Organization
Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen

EU/ICP/LVNG 01 02 08

Revised September 1997

Keywords

BREASTFEEDING
EMERGENCIES
INFANT NUTRITION

© World Health Organization

All rights in this document are reserved by the WHO Regional Office for Europe. The document may nevertheless be freely reviewed, abstracted, reproduced or translated into any other language (but not for sale or for use in conjunction with commercial purposes) provided that full acknowledgement is given to the source. For the use of the WHO emblem, permission must be sought from the WHO Regional Office. Any translation should include the words: The translator of this document is responsible for the accuracy of the translation. The Regional Office would appreciate receiving three copies of any translation. Any views expressed by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors.

Foreword

This booklet is designed to help you if you are a mother, soon-to-be a mother, or want to help one of your friends or relatives to breastfeed their baby. Once you have finished with this booklet, please pass it on to a friend who needs help to breastfeed her baby.

The concept for this booklet was born during the last war in Europe, in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994, when it was clear many mothers had become so accustomed to bottle-feeding that most women had lost their knowledge on how to breastfeed.

Although originally developed for mothers during emergency situations, we at WHO are hopeful and confident that this booklet can be of use to all mothers everywhere.

Many breastfeeding experts throughout the world have commented and contributed to the development of this booklet and WHO would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those who worked to make this booklet one of the best up-to-date guides for mothers.

Aileen Robertson, Ph.D.
Acting Regional Adviser
Nutrition Policy, Infant Feeding and
Food Security (NIF)

Introduction

Every emergency is different. It may be a natural disaster such as an earthquake or a flood. It may be political unrest leading to fighting or bombardment. It may be an industrial accident, contamination of the water supply, a power failure, road or rail crash or other tragedy. The common factor in all emergencies is that normal daily life is disrupted and essential services become overstretched or collapse. People may have to leave their homes. Supplies of food, water or energy may be scarce, wages may not be paid and the value of money may change rapidly. Whether the emergency is great or small, short or long, the main anxiety for parents is their children's health and survival. This booklet is written to help you feed your baby during an emergency.

· Breastfeeding is the best way to keep your child and yourself healthy.

· Your breast-milk alone is all your baby needs for the first 6 months.

· You can start breastfeeding again even if you stopped some months ago.

· At around 6 months introduce solid foods, but breastfeeding is still important into the second year and beyond.

· This booklet answers the questions that people ask about infant feeding in difficult times. It helps you to feed your baby safely and to get your breastmilk back if you have stopped breastfeeding.

Why is breastfeeding so important?

Breastfeeding is important everywhere for the best child health, growth and development. Breast-milk is superior to any other product given to a baby. It contains the ideal balance of nutrients and anti-infective factors, tailor-made for each individual child.

A breastfed baby receives the most nutritious, luxurious and appropriate food ever known. A millionaire's baby fed with commercial baby milk has a poorer diet than the poorest family's baby who is breastfed.

Are commercially-made baby milks as good as breastfeeding?

Artificial feeding, using commercially-made baby milks and bottles, is promoted by companies to make profits. This undermines breastfeeding. Even some health professionals believe that artificial feeding is as good as breastfeeding and their belief influences us to think that it is modern and safe. Artificial feeding can cause health problems in stable situations. It is an even greater risk during an emergency.

Why are commercially-made baby milks not so good?

Commercially-made baby milks¹ can never match breast-milk, even those made by the most sophisticated and scientific methods. They do not contain anti-infective factors. Even if a manufacturer could copy human milk, it could never be right for each child, because each mother's milk changes according to her child's needs. Colostrum, the early, thicker, yellow-coloured breast-milk, acts as the first immunization, and provides a super-dose of antibodies and vitamins. Colostrum helps expel the baby's first dark faeces (meconium). The change from colostrum into mature milk matches the newborn's needs. Breast-milk then changes composition during a breastfeed and changes according to the child's age.

¹ Also called infant formula, breast-milk substitute or artificial milk.

But can every woman breastfeed?

Most women are able to breastfeed, but unfortunately a lot of common practices make breastfeeding go wrong. In this century, breastfeeding skills have been lost. Mistaken ideas went into medical textbooks and training. Separation of the mother and baby after birth, feeding to a timetable, giving extra bottles of artificial milk or any other fluid, and other common practices can all make breastfeeding go wrong and reduce a mother's breast-milk supply.

² Exclusive breastfeeding means feeding the baby frequently, on demand (baby-led) day and night, without giving bottles, dummies or other foods or fluids, but allowing for essential medicines.

But why don't the experts tell us this if breastfeeding is so important?

Awareness of the importance of breastfeeding is growing fast. However there is still lack of understanding about how to help mothers, even among well-educated health professionals. This is not their fault; established medical practices have unknowingly damaged breastfeeding for years. Now practices are changing. In both rich and poor regions, enlightened health authorities encourage the reform of hospital practices and community support for breastfeeding. Training for health professionals is improving. Global initiatives such as The WHO/UNICEF³ Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) promote 'The Ten Steps To Successful Breast-feeding'. These are based on the best knowledge of practices which help mothers and babies breastfeed happily right from the start. WHO and UNICEF urge all health professionals to implement The Ten Steps in all health facilities.

³ WHO is the World Health Organization. UNICEF is the United Nations' Children's Fund. These organizations work together to promote breastfeeding.

In an emergency we cannot wait for practices to change. When water or fuel supplies are disrupted, breastfeeding can save lives. Breastfeeding keeps babies and toddlers healthy and well nourished, even in bad conditions; it can also protect women's health.

Do babies also need tea and water?

Breast-milk, including the first milk colostrum, is the perfectly balanced food and drink for babies. No other food or liquid is needed in the first 6 months of life. Plain water, glucose, dextrose or sugar water, teas, herbal drinks, juices, gripe water, milk or any other fluid (including commercial baby milks) all reduce the amount of breast-milk that the baby takes in. All these products are unnecessary, except in the rarest cases, and they can all do harm. They can introduce germs, cause allergies and irritate the baby's intestines. If given soon afterbirth they will delay the establishment of breastfeeding and reduce breast-milk supply. Exclusive breastfeeding is the ideal and all other fluids interfere with the process. Breast-milk contains the exact amount of water that the baby needs, even in the hottest, driest climates. The fluid in breast-milk is better absorbed by the baby than any other that might be given.

When do babies need more than just breast-milk?

At around 6 months introduce solid foods (any family foods available: see section "Food supplies can be precarious. How can we feed the babies over 6 months who need more than breast-milk alone?"), but ideally continue breast-feeding for 2 years or beyond. When your baby starts to eat solid foods, then you can give her cooled boiled water, though breast-milk will supply enough fluid if safe water is unavailable. Babies should not drink sugared drinks or teas. These drinks contain no useful nutrients and damage the teeth. Tea reduces iron-absorption and can lead to iron deficiency anaemia. Breastfeeding into the second year and beyond can provide about a third of the child's energy and protein needs, is a good source of the important vitamins A and C and protects against infection. Sick toddlers can breastfeed even when they refuse other foods. This maintains nutrition, speeds recovery and gives comfort.

So a sick baby should go on breastfeeding?

Yes, a sick baby must continue to breastfeed⁴ because breast-milk actively fights disease. Breast-milk contains numerous disease-fighting substances. For example, if germs which cause diarrhoeal disease are in your environment, your body produces antibodies against them in your breast-milk to protect your baby. Breast-milk is easy to digest so a sick baby is less likely to vomit after feeding.

⁴ If the baby is too weak to suckle he should be given expressed breast-milk (EBM).

Do breastfed babies get fewer diseases?

Yes, definitely. Breastfeeding protects against common infections, especially diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases. Even in the best, most hygienic conditions, artificially-fed babies are 5 times more likely to suffer diarrhoeal disease. When water and fuel supplies are disrupted, infections spread rapidly. Artificially-fed babies are 14 times more likely to die from diarrhoeal diseases and 3 times more likely to die from respiratory diseases than breastfed babies. Breastfeeding lowers the risk of a baby getting urinary tract infections which can lead to kidney disease, and ear infections which can lead to deafness.

But my friend's baby got ill and he was breastfed

Of course some breastfed babies get infections, but most get them less severely. They recover more quickly, and are less likely to die from infections or become malnourished, than artificially-fed babies. The more vulnerable the baby the more he needs breast-milk.

So breastfeeding is like a medicine?

Yes, and it protects long-term health too. Breastfeeding lowers the risk of a child developing diabetes. Exclusive breastfeeding can delay allergies such as asthma and eczema. Studies show breastfed children to be more intelligent, especially premature babies who received breast-milk. Immunization works better in breastfed babies.

Studies suggest that breastfeeding reduces the risk of badly formed teeth, poor eyesight, some childhood cancers, raised blood pressure and coronary heart disease in adult life.

Some studies suggest that the longer a woman breastfeeds the lower her risk of ovarian and pre-menopausal breast cancer, and bone disease (osteoporosis) and hip fractures when she is old. Diabetic women need less insulin when they breastfeed.

People say that stress stops the milk, so during stressful times how can we breastfeed?

In societies where women never doubt their ability to breastfeed, mothers have suckled their babies for centuries during famines and wars and saved their lives. In societies where bottle-feeding has become common and confidence in breastfeeding has declined, women have breastfed even less during emergencies. Aid workers did not realize that when they distributed commercial milks and bottles, they were destroying women's confidence, stopping their babies stimulating their breast-milk production and increasing the risk of illness.

If you understand how women's bodies work, despite the stress, you can help yourself and others to cope with a difficult situation. Stress has no effect on the milk-making hormone (prolactin), but it can have a temporary effect on the hormone which makes the milk flow out of the breast (oxytocin). The temporary stoppage of this reflex is a useful biological mechanism to stop milk being ejected from the breast at difficult moments.

Stress has always been part of life and if it destroyed breastfeeding, the human race would never have evolved. When an early human mother and her baby were escaping from a wild animal, it would help for the milk flow to stop while she was running away. But as soon as she reached shelter, the flow would re-start through putting her baby to the breast.

We know the signs of fear: a dry mouth, increased heart beat, cold feet and trembling. These signs slow down after a while, even when the cause of the fear continues. It is the same with the oxytocin reflex: the milk flow may stop for a short time when you are very shocked, but even though the cause of the shock remains, the flow of breast-milk will resume as long as you keep putting your baby to your breast.

The milk-making system is very robust. The oxytocin reflex is sensitive: it can stop temporarily, but it resumes quickly. We all need comfort during stressful times. Ask someone to give you a gentle back massage. This can help your oxytocin reflex, together with the baby suckling freely, to stimulate the breast-milk to start flowing again.

Breastfeeding, with skin-to-skin contact, helps you feel closer. This can help your baby feel secure and limit the damage of the emotional traumas of stressful situations. The breastfeeding hormones help many women feel calmer in stressful situations.

Show this booklet to the health professionals or anyone who is trying to help you. The most important point for health professionals, aid workers, family or friends to remember is that a few minutes of comfort and reassurance can get breast-milk flowing and protect a baby's health and life. Distributing bottles and artificial milk can cause illness and death.

What about women who have lost a lot of weight? Can they produce milk?

Thinness or weight loss rarely influence breast-milk supply. Human lactation is a remarkably resilient process. Most women gain body fat during pregnancy which acts as an energy store to make milk after the baby is born. However, even thin women who do not gain weight during pregnancy still produce enough good quality milk for their babies. The important thing is their babies suckle freely. Even in the Dutch famine in 1945 and the African famines in the 1980s, women continued to breastfeed and their babies grew. Only severe starvation makes lactation stop. In emergencies everyone is worried about getting food and of course you need sufficient food for yourself. The one food supply that you need not worry about is breast-milk.

Do we need special nutrition for breastfeeding?

You need enough food to maintain your own health and energy. Your breast-milk supply will continue as long as you let your baby suckle freely and effectively. When there is food rationing, pregnant and lactating mothers should have priority among the adult population. The extra energy needed by the body to make breast-milk is about 500 extra calories a day above basic needs. This means, for example, two extra slices of bread, or an extra helping of potatoes or any other food available. However, women's bodies adjust to lactation by using nutrients more efficiently. You may feel hungrier, but you need not worry that you need special foods to make breast-milk. Diets vary around the world. Meat is not essential; vegetarian women who never eat meat or fish, and women who never drink milk, all breastfeed successfully and stay healthy. Eat a varied diet with vegetables if you can get them. Try to get salt which has iodine added, since iodine deficiency is common in most countries. There is no need to avoid certain foods while breastfeeding. In an emergency eat whatever is available. There is no need to take extra fluid. Just drink when you are thirsty.

But what about anaemic women? Does breastfeeding drain their strength?

No. Anaemic women can breastfeed quite normally, though it is best for their own health if they get treated. Drinking tea with your food reduces the absorption of iron, so try to drink tea two hours after a meal. In fact, exclusive breastfeeding can protect women from anaemia because it delays the return of menstruation. The small amount of iron that goes from your bloodstream into the breast-milk is less than that lost through menstruation.

Someone told me breastfeeding stopped you getting pregnant, but isn't that just a story?

Exclusive breastfeeding lowers your risk of getting pregnant. During the first 6 months, as long as you do not menstruate, and you breastfeed fully day and night, you have 98% protection from pregnancy. This is equivalent to the protection from other modern contraceptive methods. As you will learn from the following section (How does breastfeeding work?), the stimulation by your baby's mouth at your breast influences the hormones which affect your fertility. If your baby gets bottle feeds, even of your expressed breast-milk, or is given a dummy, the suckling stimulus is reduced and the contraceptive effect of breastfeeding is less effective. You should not rely on this method of contraception after the baby is 6 months old.

How does breastfeeding work?

Both you and your baby have a part to play.

Every woman who gives birth produces colostrum and then breast-milk. As soon as a mother delivers her baby and the placenta (afterbirth), the milk-making process starts to work. This happens whether you are healthy or ill, overweight or underweight, have a normal or assisted birth or a Caesarean section. The only time this does not happen is if part of the placenta stays in the womb or if a mother suffers extremely severe bleeding during childbirth - both very rare events.

What about women with small breasts or flat nipples?

Every woman's breasts are suitable for feeding. They can be large, small or flat. The areola (the darker area surrounding the nipple) can be large or small, dark or pale, protrude or not show at all. The nipples can be long, short or flat. Women with inverted nipples can breastfeed as long as they get help and encouragement. What matters in all cases is that the baby takes in a large mouthful of the breast, and not just the nipple. It is important that every woman feels confident that she can breastfeed her baby. Family, friends or health professionals can make or break that confidence.

You said the baby has a part too. What can he do?

The baby has a major part to play. After the birth, a healthy baby has the strength and skill⁵ to crawl up his⁶ mother's stomach, find the breast and nuzzle and lick his mother's nipple. In his own time he will open his mouth and start suckling. If no one stops the baby and he stays close to his mother, the baby looks for the breast whenever he feels hungry and suckles. Skin-to-skin contact stimulates the hormones that make breastfeeding and digestion go well. If your baby is healthy he should not be separated from you (see The Ten Steps). You can rest together. Routine medical observations can be done while you are holding your baby (Figure 1).

⁵ If drugs have been used late in labour they may make your baby less alert and he may take longer to be interested in the breast. Be patient. Your baby does not need other fluids; they will only delay his interest in the breast.

⁶ He/she, his/her are used alternately from paragraph to paragraph, thus referring to a balance of male and female babies. The translator can do what is appropriate in her/his language.

Figure 1

Why is the baby's suckling-action important?

The baby's suckling action stimulates the milk supply. The earlier and more frequently the baby goes to the breast, the more quickly breastfeeding is established. Sometimes mothers cannot control the procedures after childbirth. Even if you could not have your baby near you, with a little help and confidence, your baby can restimulate the milk even if you have stopped breastfeeding. Women have breastfed adopted babies simply by letting the baby suckle their breasts (see section "You said earlier that milk changes during a feed. Can you explain that?").

How does a baby stimulate the milk?

Signs of hunger start long before crying: a baby turns her head, opens her mouth wide, sticks her tongue out and salivates. When you stay close together, you learn to recognize these signs. You can then offer your breast before your baby cries. A baby learns to breastfeed better if she is not distressed before a feed.

Every baby is born with reflexes to enable him to breastfeed. You may have noticed a baby doing the following:

1. A baby instinctively turns his head from side to side to look for his mother's breast.

2. A mother offers her breast and holds her baby close. The touch of her nipple stimulates him to open his mouth wide and take in a 'good mouthful' of breast (Figure 2). He takes in much of the underpart of the areola (the darker area surrounding the nipple). He holds his tongue down so that it goes under the breast. His lower lip is turned outwards and his chin indents the breast. The tip of the nipple touches the roof of his mouth far back. This stimulates him to make the milking action or 'suckling'.⁷

⁷ The term 'suckling' in English is different from sucking, although in English and many other languages the word sucking is often used for feeding at the breast. It is important to differentiate as sucking is a different action from suckling. Suckling is the milking action at the breast (as described) whereas sucking is how we drink through a straw. A baby usually sucks on a bottle or dummy, but suckles at the breast. If the translator can use different words or phrases for the two actions this will help get the information across.

Figure 2

3. The suckling action is like a wave. The baby's tongue and lower jaw compress the darker area behind the nipple (the areola). The movements of the baby's tongue press the mouthful of breast against the roof of his mouth. This action presses out the milk. The baby's suckling stimulates nerves in the areola to send messages to the mother's brain which then releases two breastfeeding hormones which go through the bloodstream to the breast. The first hormone (called prolactin) stimulates the breast to make milk. The second hormone (called oxytocin) makes the milk flow (Figure 3).

Figure 3

The baby does not suckle continuously. At first he suckles quickly a few times to start the milk flowing. Then he changes to deep rhythmic suckling, sometimes pausing. Sometimes a mother mistakenly thinks her baby wants to stop feeding when he pauses and she takes the baby off. In fact the pauses mean the milk is flowing and feeding is going well. Always let the baby end the breastfeed in his own time. Of course in a special situation, a feed must be interrupted. Put your little finger in your baby's mouth and take him off gently so that he does not pull on your breast and hurt your nipple.

4. When the milk flows out of the breast, we call it the oxytocin or milk ejection reflex. Some women feel this as a tingling sensation in their breasts.

5. You can see now why nipple shape does not matter. What is important is that the baby gets 'a good mouthful' of breast and not just the nipple. This enables the baby to stimulate the nerves which trigger the hormones and also to press out the milk which collects in little 'sinuses' under the areola. A baby should breastfeed, not just suck the nipple. If she is 'well-attached' she can make a good milking action (suckling).

The first principle of breastfeeding: good attachment

When we understand the first principle of 'good attachment', we can help breastfeeding start well and we can prevent most common difficulties so that it continues well.

Why does good attachment not always come naturally to the baby?

You now know how a baby feeds: the baby is stimulated by the touch of your nipple on his lip to open his mouth wide and take in a good mouthful of breast.

Why does the baby not always get this right?

A common reason is that a mother is not holding her baby in the best position to achieve good attachment. For example if a baby is held too high or too much to the side he cannot aim his mouth in the best direction. This is more common with first-time mothers or mothers who have previously bottlefed. However every baby is different and even experienced mothers may need a little help with a new baby. Here are the key points of good positioning:

Sit or lie wherever you feel most comfortable.

1. Your baby's head and body should be in a straight line. Whether you hold her sideways, upright or under your arm, her body should 'face' yours. A baby cannot suckle or swallow easily if her head is twisted to one side or her arm is in front of her. Try drinking with your head twisted round sideways and you will realize it is not easy.

2. Her face should face your breast, with her nose level with your nipple. This enables her to take in more of the underneath of the areola than the top part. The touch of the nipple on her lips will stimulate her to open her mouth wide (Figures 4a, 4b and 4c).

Figure 4a

3. Hold your baby close to your body so that she can take in a good mouthful of breast. Bring your baby to your breast, not your breast to the baby. Do not lean forward as this may give you backache.

4. If the baby is newborn, support her whole body, and not just her head and shoulders. This helps her stay close but still be able to move her head and neck freely.

5. If you feel your breast needs support, cup it from below with your spare hand. Avoid holding your fingers like scissors⁸ as this can pull the breast out of your baby's mouth and spoil the good attachment. This common practice comes from a mistaken idea that a baby cannot breathe easily at the breast. Actually nature has designed a baby's nostrils to be at the sides of her nose so that she can breathe while she breastfeeds. A baby can look squashed at the breast and that is fine. As long as she can extend her head freely she will adjust herself to breathe comfortably.

⁸ Also called 'the cigarette hold'.

Figure 4b

Figure 4c

Sometimes it is hard to get a baby close because he is swaddled and his clothing gets in the way

It will help to unwrap your baby's clothing to improve breastfeeding. In cold conditions wrap a shawl around you and your baby together. Your own body's heat will keep your baby warm. Tight swaddling around the head and body stops babies extending their necks freely to attach well. Tightly swaddled babies have a higher risk of respiratory infections. Free movement of arms and legs is good for babies' physical development and warms them through increased circulation. Wrap the baby warmly but loosely. Layers of looser clothing trap more air and keep your baby warmer.

Even if my baby attaches well, how can I be sure there will be enough milk?

The second principle of breastfeeding:
The supply and demand system

Your baby's suckling sends a message to your brain to say how much milk she needs. If your baby is hungrier today, she suckles more. In response, your brain sends out more milk-making hormones telling your breast to make more milk. It is a supply and demand system. If your baby is separated from you, or taken off your breast too soon or poorly attached, she cannot stimulate the amount of milk she needs. If your baby's stomach is filled with other fluids, she will not suckle so vigorously. Giving your baby a dummy, especially in the early days, may stop her stimulating your breast often enough.

Breast-milk contains a substance called 'inhibitor'. If milk is not removed from the breast, the inhibitor makes your body reduce milk production. The 'inhibitor' is there to shut down the milk-making system if the baby does not feed. So you can understand that restricting breastfeeding and not removing the milk will reduce the supply. Many women believe that their bodies cannot make enough milk and some health professionals mistakenly tell them this. In fact most women can produce far more milk than their babies need. All women are designed to feed twins, so producing enough for one is easy if you respond to your baby's need to suckle. When a baby wants to suckle frequently, she is ordering the milk-making system to increase production; within a few days her orders are fulfilled. Supplementary feeds interrupt the baby's clear message to her mother's body.

You said earlier that milk changes during a feed. Can you explain that?

Babies know what they need. Like many adults they need to satisfy their thirst before they eat the heavier part of the meal. The milk at the start of a feed (called foremilk) is more watery and high in lactose (milk sugar). The milk becomes fattier towards the end of a feed (called hindmilk). If you take your baby off one breast before he wants to come off spontaneously, then he may not get the fat-rich hindmilk. If you offer the second breast before he wants to stop at the first, he gets a second helping of foremilk. This unbalanced meal can lead to a restless, unsatisfied baby with wind, pain and colic.

But I thought you must feed from both breasts?

There is no rule. Do what suits your baby and you. Offer the second breast, but do not worry if she refuses. Some babies want the second breast, others do not. Some want one at one feed and two at another. Some babies change their habits as they grow and develop. Your baby's appetite guides her according to her needs. Letting a baby feed when and how she wants to is called baby-led feeding.⁹ Baby-led feeding produces the best milk supply and a more satisfied baby who cries less and grows well.

⁹ Baby-led feeding is also called 'feeding on demand'. Exclusive breastfeeding also means baby-led feeding.

You said earlier that confidence was important but not everyone has that. What can we do?

The third principle of breastfeeding: Confidence

Older people may remember poor, hard-working women who breastfed all their children easily. These women unconsciously knew the basic principles of breastfeeding and assumed they would have breast-milk. In common with many modern women you may lack confidence in your ability to breastfeed. Perhaps your mother suffered the problems brought about by the mistaken medical practices. Perhaps you do not know anyone who has breastfed exclusively and you find it hard to believe that you can.

This booklet may give you some helpful facts, but your heart might still doubt. You can help yourself and your baby by asking your partner or a relative, a friend or any sympathetic person to support you, especially through the early days until breastfeeding is well-established. Ask them to read this book or at least the parts you find most helpful. Your helper can be like a trainer who helps a sports person. But unlike a trainer they must never be strict and always be gentle. In the past female relatives helped new mothers to breastfeed. In difficult situations we need to help each other whoever we are.

Breastfeeding mothers can support each other. If you are helping another mother remember that encouragement and kindness are as important as good information. Your confidence in her ability to breastfeed is vital. Never judge her, listen sympathetically and do not overwhelm her with advice.

A little relevant information is far more effective than a long lecture.

I know women with breastfeeding problems. Can they be helped?

Some women experience difficulties with breastfeeding such as sore and cracked nipples, engorgement, blocked ducts, mastitis and abscesses. Many mothers and health professionals accept these difficulties as inevitable, but they are all avoidable.

These difficulties are more common where bottle-feeding has become usual. Many people, even some health professionals, have not learned to recognize how a baby breastfeeds well. This is partly because when you see more bottle-feeding than breastfeeding, you lose the chance to observe.

A bottle-fed baby is held differently (see section on positioning) and he uses his mouth differently on an artificial teat.