A survey to field-test a prototype framework for the analysis of constraints in the post-production systems was conducted for maize and cassava in four districts (Kalomo, Kaoma, Chibombo and Mansa) in Zambia. The study was undertaken by a six-person team of international and national consultants in post-harvest technology, economics and sociology, during a six week period in July and August 1997
Main Findings
The Analytical Framework
The framework proved useful in guiding the analysis of the post-production system, particularly in formulating checklists of points to consider and questions to be answered. The framework suggests a rigid approach using completion of questionnaires, whereas analysts need to maintain flexibility to pursue relevant issues arising from discussions and interviews and which perhaps may not have been considered at the outset.
This project focused upon post-production constraints and identified opportunities for intervention and improvement. However, it is evident that many maize producers, whilst acknowledging post-production constraints, attach higher importance to production constraints, especially the problems of input supply (fertiliser and seed) and availability of credit. Unless these issues are tackled, farmers are likely to give low priority to programmes which address only post-harvest constraints.
Government Policy
Government is committed to a policy of market liberalisation but the country is in a state of transition as government involvement is phased out. Producers were ill-prepared for the change to the liberalised system and feel isolated and lacking of support. Producers are, however, receiving support under the Agricultural Sector Investment Programme launched in 1996, but it will be some time before the benefits are realised. The Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (MAFF) is only now undergoing the restructuring needed to will improve service delivery to the agricultural sector.
Maize harvesting and drying
There appear to be no major technical difficulties associated with harvesting and drying of maize. Producers are aware of the losses that are likely to occur as a result of untimely harvesting and poor drying. They generally take action, given sufficient labour and satisfactory climatic conditions, to minimise such losses. A new design of maize drying crib has been suggested for Zambia but there seems to be little justification for promoting this structure except in a few specific situations where the crib may have an advantage over traditional cribs. Further investigation of the socio-economic costs and benefits is needed.
Maize shelling
Manual shelling of maize is time consuming and results in a considerable level of damage to grains. Mechanical shellers, which can improve productivity and grain quality were once readily available. In view of the interest in maize shellers shown by producers, especially in Kalomo and Kaoma, the availability and costs of these machines should be investigated and the opportunities of introducing them (perhaps through the SPFS) into high maize producing areas requires investigation.
Maize storage and marketing
Producers were unprepared for the introduction of free market trading and even now, farmers show some naiveté about marketing. They feel isolated and uninformed about the working of the liberalised market. There is a widespread belief that the loss of the guaranteed market and fixed prices is only temporary and that government will intervene once more. Hence, there is a reluctance on the part of producers to invest in methods of long term storage at the farm level.
Storage on the farm, to take advantage of seasonal price increases is now, theoretically, an option but there is no tradition to store more than is required for household needs. There are also technical difficulties in maintaining quality of hybrid varieties of maize. There are a number of options open to the producer including:
But the producer needs help in analysing these options to find the one most appropriate to his particular circumstances.
Improved on-farm storage structures
A range of improved on-farm storage structures is available and considerable effort is being devoted to their promotion. There has been no evaluation of the uptake and impact following the introduction of demonstration units. A preliminary economic assessment of improved structures indicates that they are likely to be viable alternatives to the traditional system. However, critical assessments are urgently needed to ensure that they are economical, technically suitable and socially acceptable in the specific areas of the country in which they are to be promoted.
The Larger Grain Borer
The Larger Grain Borer (LGB), a new and devastating pest of stored maize and dried cassava has become established in Zambia. The pest poses a threat, not only to these products stored on the farm, but also to trade, particularly at the regional level. A strategy of integrated pest and commodity management for control and containment of LGB has been prepared by the National LGB Control and Containment Programme (NLCCP). There is a need to continue the work already begun on raising public awareness of the pest. Extension advice on control of LGB needs to be harmonised with the post-harvest (storage) advice being currently offered by extension personnel.
Communal storage
There is interest among some farmers in communal storage of maize and the concept has the support of the Rural Investment Fund (RIF). Costs of storage, especially for rented stores, may however, be prohibitive. Experience from elsewhere has shown that communal storage groups do not have a good record of performance and such enterprises fail for a number of reasons including: weak group structure, poor management procedures and lack of technical knowledge. It is recommended that, RIF administrators satisfy themselves that these issues have been properly addressed when considering requests for assistance for communal storage projects.
Storage insecticides
If on-farm storage of hybrid maize is to be encouraged producers will need access to appropriate insecticides. An efficient system of distribution is currently lacking and needs to be developed, particularly in the rural areas. The NLCCP is addressing the issue of insecticide for LGB. It is proposed that extension staff should actively promote the use of storage insecticides for long-term storage of maize and facilitate availability of insecticides by acting as a link between producers and insecticide distributors.
Cassava
The major technical constraints in the cassava post-production system are in peeling, drying and processing (pounding/milling). These constraints are currently being addressed by the Root and Tuber Improvement Project in Mansa, Luapula Province.
New varieties of cassava with good sized, straight tubers and with softer skin which are easier to peel have already been released. Demand outstrips the availability of new planting material available from the multiplication programmes.
Drying of cassava in the rainy season is a major constraint and has serious household food security implications. In theory, it is possible to dry a sufficient quantity of cassava before the onset of the rains which could be drawn upon during the rainy season, but shortage of labour for harvesting and drying is a constraint for many. A prototype cassava drier has been developed but trials are only just beginning and costs and benefits are yet to be assessed. Even if the drier proves too expensive for individual farmers there may be opportunities for communal ownership or for the drier to be added to the services offered at hammermills.
Post-harvest extension
Zambia does not have a long history or experience of post-harvest extension activity. Extension advice on cassava has been neglected and extension advice on maize was considered unnecessary in a system that relieved producers of the technical problems associated with storage of hybrid maize. Extension staff are concerned primarily with advice on crop and livestock production. Consequently, post-harvest extension is weak. The need to improve extension on storage and marketing has been recognised by MAFF and a start was made with the FAO/MAFF project ‘Extension support to small-scale farmers on maize marketing and storage.’ However, the main thrust of post-harvest extension at present is still the promotion of improved storage structures for maize.
It is recommended that a strategy be developed for longer term training (in storage, post-harvest handling and marketing, including analytical and participatory approaches to solving post-harvest problems) for a core of post-harvest specialists.
Post-harvest development strategies should be tailored to the specific circumstances of a district and it is recommended that district-level groups, with representatives from extension, marketing, and post-harvest specialists be established with the objectives of:
Women play an important role in post-production activities but are largely ignored by the extension service. The gender imbalance is being addressed by new MAFF policies. However, more effort is needed to recruit women into the extension service and to give gender issues a higher priority in training for extension staff generally.
Post-harvest research
Post-harvest research conducted by the Food Conservation and Storage Unit (FCSU) of the Mount Makulu Research Station in Zambia, has concentrated almost exclusively on the development of improved storage structures for maize. Financial and staffing constraints have limited the extent to which the FCSU can interact with extension or with producers. As a consequence, research is not targeted specifically to the needs of the producer within the liberalised market. It is recommended that the FCSU be strengthened and that FCSU personnel be out-stationed at the provincial level, to bring specialist post-harvest advice to district and field extension staff; and to facilitate better targeted, adaptive and participatory post-harvest research.
Maize marketing
Although government is committed to a policy of grain and input market liberalisation the country is still in a state of transition. In this environment the trading system is still relatively rudimentary and somewhat fragmented; traders are uncertain about the future and are reluctant to invest to enhance their business opportunities. Wholesale grain markets are developing slowly but lack the support needed to further develop and consolidate as focal points for commercial grain trading. Government must continue to vigorously demonstrate its commitment to the liberalised market. Encouraging development of wholesale markets would provide an indicator of stability and the commitment to the liberalised marketing system that traders are seeking. The markets would provide focal points at which buyers and sellers could congregate. The simplest requirement would be for a secure area with hardstandings and perhaps covered storage which could be rented by traders from the local authorities.
Formal grading standards for maize were abolished at liberalisation and as a consequence producers saw little point in supplying good quality (clean, dry and pest-free) maize to the private markets. Wholesalers have responded to the demands from the major trading companies for better quality maize by introducing a rudimentary form of grading. A return to official grading standards has been advocated but these are not enforcable in an internal, informal trading system. Awareness needs to be raised among producers of the benefits of supplying quality maize. Advice can be offered by extension but the market information service on commodity prices should consider moving towards a system of differentiating between ‘standard’ and ‘quality maize’ as defined by the trading community.
There is interest among farmers in associating with neighbours to provide a simple self-help group to facilitate marketing (and access to other resources such as inputs, credit, extension advice and information). Support given by government to the co-operative sector in the past tended to suppress the development of other forms of spontaneous associations with the exception of women’s clubs. The organisation of self-motivated groups may contribute positively towards filling the gap left following the demise of the co-operatives and it is recommended that new policies for the development of new rural associations be included in the forthcoming new Co-operative Act.
The road network serving villages in rural areas are in poor condition and present a major constraint to the efficient marketing of produce. The problem is being addressed in some areas through road rehabilitation programmes, but steps must be taken to ensure that roads, once rehabilitated are maintained.
Information on prices of agricultural commodities provided by the Agricultural Market Information Centre is made available at district level and is transmitted in radio broadcasts. However, a large proportion of the rural community rarely receives this information or finds it difficult to interpret. An investigation is needed to ascertain producers’ felt needs for information. Consideration should be given to using alternative channels for information such as local markets, bus stations, schools, clinics, and churches.
Hammermills
There has been a rapid growth in hammermills, particularly in the rural areas. Continued expansion is likely but care is needed lest milling services reach saturation point in a particular area and businesses fail.
Hammermills, undoubtedly relieve women of the drudgery of hand-pounding of produce, but they do not necessarily lead to a saving in time for women. The popularity of hammermills means that waiting times are often extended. A further negative consequence of hammermilling for women is that they are usually expected to meet the cost of milling charges from their own income generating activities.
Mills, particularly in the remote areas, are often out of action for long periods because of mechanical breakdowns and difficulties in obtaining spare parts or failure to budget for spares. Survival of hammermill businesses depend on their cost-effectiveness and financial management; routine maintenance and repair costs will be an important factor. There are opportunities for milling a variety of other products and for adding other income-generating activities at the mill site to improve profitability of the mill.
The hammermill industry is in need of support through improved access to spare parts, and technical, financial and business management advice. Previously such advice was available in some areas through special projects, for example the Zambia Agri-business Management Support Project (ZAMS). In the absence of such projects, formation of hammermill operator associations may improve access to, and financing of spares and specialist advice or training.