The analytical framework was used as the reference document for the conduct of this study. The checklists provided useful guidance on: (a) the points to be pursued individually or collectively by the different disciplines represented on the mission; (b) the formulation of specific questions to be asked of different groups of informants. The mission had no difficulty in using the material provided in the framework but it is recommended that more guidance be given on the general approach to systems analysis.
The term ‘framework’ suggests a rigid approach to analysing systems, perhaps through completion of questionnaires. Although questionnaires were used in this exercise for gathering specific pieces of information it was more appropriate to use a checklist of points to be addressed as an aide memoire for conducting semi-structured interviews and group discussions. Analysts must have the flexibility to pursue relevant issues that arise from discussions and which, perhaps, were not considered at the outset.
The framework for post-production systems analysis is intended to cover all operations from harvesting to consumption, and including industrial and commercial handling and processing. However, the mission’s activities were mainly in four rural districts of the country and consequently the focus was more on constraints affecting the small- and medium-scale producer. Nevertheless, the analysis took account of government policy with respect to market liberalisation and its broader consequences, and the current development policies and restructuring of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries.
There may be expectations that the application of the analytical framework for post-production systems will provide a full justification for intervention at particular points. However, while this exercise has demonstrated the need for interventions such as better training for extension staff, improved methods of disseminating market information to producers, and improved storage to reduce insect losses, it has also highlighted the need for further analysis. For example, although farmers have a choice of improved grain storage structures that are potentially economically viable, local assessments will be needed to identify the system most appropriate of farmers’ individual circumstances. Elements of the framework can be used in formulating the approach to be followed in this type of assessment.
This project has focused upon post-production constraints and has identified opportunities for intervention and improvement. However, it is important to set the post-production constraints analysis in the context of the whole crop system. For example, it is evident that many Zambian maize producers, whilst recognising that there are post-production constraints, attach higher importance to the production constraints, especially the problems of input supply (fertiliser and seed) and availability of credit. Unless these issues are tackled, farmers are likely to give low priority to programmes which address only the post-harvest constraints.
The Government of the Republic of Zambia is committed to a policy of grain and input market liberalisation. It moved quickly from centralised and controlled maize marketing and input delivery and created an environment in which the private sector can function. However, the country is still in a state of transition as government involvement is phased out and the private sector develops its operations. Producers were uninfomed and ill-prepared for the changes and feel themselves isolated and lacking the support, particularly financial support (credit and subsidies) of government.
Government policy is to provide and improve its support to producers through the Agricultural Sector Improvement Programme. However, this support, quite rightly, does not include financial support since this would inevitably lead to a situation similar to that prior to liberalisation with producers heavily dependent on government. The overall strategy of the Government Institutions in the agricultural sector must be to provide a leading role in the sectors of training, education, information dissemination, communication, co-ordination of interventions, and policy formulation with specific reference to gender issues. Support, through advice and encouragemnet of an enabling environment is also required to promote marketing, availability of credit and establishment of new forms of associations (e.g. farmers groups, women’s clubs, hammermill operators).
In the state of transition following market liberalisation, there is some degree of uncertainty about the future especially among some of the smaller players in the trading system which is still relatively rudimentary and somewhat fragmented. Wholesale grain markets are developing but lack the support needed to further develop and consolidate as focal points for commercial grain trading. A shortage of cash and high interest rates coupled with uncertainty about the future means that traders are reluctant to make major capital investment in, for example, warehouses for storage of grain to enhance business. It is recommended that Government continues to take whatever steps are necessary to vigorously demonstrate its commitment to the liberalised market.
Encouraging development of wholesale markets would provide the indicator of stability of, and commitment to, the liberalised marketing system that traders are seeking. Itinerant traders/transporters and individual farmers would be able to find regular markets, and buyers would have a focal point at which to congregate. The simplest requirement would be for a secure area with hardstandings and perhaps covered storage. Additionally space for secure storage sheds and small offices with telephone service might be made available. It is recommended that GRZ and more especially the local authorities consider providing such market facilities where traders can rent trading and storage space.
Maize grading
Since liberalisation maize grading standards have been abolished (with the exception of maize entering the FRA). With the abolition of standards, producers no longer take care in supplying good quality (clean, dry and pest-free) maize and wholesalers find difficulty in selling this produce. Awareness of the need for good quality maize is increasing in the trade and some wholesalers conduct a rudimentary form of grading and have introduced financial penalties for low grade maize. There is some interest in the trade in a return to official grading standards but these would be difficult to implement in an informal, internal liberalised system. Producers require advice on the benefits of addressing the issue of maize quality and it is recommended that extension staff include this advice in their general post-harvest messages. It is further recommended that the market information service on commodity prices moves towards a system of differentiating between ‘standard’ and ‘quality maize’ as defined by the local trading community.
Farmers Groups or Associations
There is interest among farmers in associating with neighbours to provide a simple self-help group to facilitate marketing (and access to other resources such as inputs, credit, extension advice and information). However, the idea of forming such groups generally seems to be alien to many farmers. The support given by government to the co-operative sector tended to suppress the development of other forms of spontaneous associations with the exception of women’s clubs. The organisation of self-motivated groups may contribute positively towards filling the gap left following the demise of the co-operatives. It is therefore recommended that new policies for the development of new rural associations (including farmers’ groups and women’s clubs) be included in the forthcoming new Co-operative Act.
Access to Rural Areas
The road network serving villages in rural areas are in poor condition and thus present a major constraint to the efficient marketing of produce and provision of inputs. Although the problem is being addressed in some areas through road rehabilitation programmes, steps must be taken to ensure that roads, once rehabilitated are maintained. It is recommended that the responsibilities for continuing maintenance be agreed at the planning stage of any road rehabilitation project.
Market Information
Information on prices of agricultural commodities provided by the Agricultural Market Information Centre is made available at district level and is transmitted in radio broadcasts. However, it is evident that a large proportion of the rural community rarely receives this information or finds it difficult to interpret. Market information could be made more user friendly but even then it is questionable whether the service meets the needs of the majority of small-scale farmers who will not be visiting towns, do not read newspapers and may not have access to radios. It is therefore recommended that an investigation be undertaken MAFF to ascertain producers’ felt needs for information; what sort, when, where, and how best it can be supplied. Consideration should be given to using alternative channels for information such as local markets, bus stations, schools, clinics, churches, and the residences of the traditional chiefs. Women’s clubs (and newly emerging farmers groups) that meet regularly may also provide appropriate channels for information dissemination.
8.2.2 Post-harvest Extension and Research
Zambia does not have a long history or experience of post-harvest extension activity. Extension advice on cassava has been neglected and in the case of maize, extension activity was deemed unnecessary where producers sold maize at harvest and were thus relieved of the technical problems associated with storage of hybrid maize. Extension staff are still concerned primarily with advice on crop and animal production. Consequently, post-harvest extension is weak. The need to improve extension on storage and marketing has been recognised and a start was made with the FAO/MAFF project ‘Extension support to small-scale farmers on maize marketing and storage.’ Training material on improved storage and principles of marketing is available, training is being provided for extension staff and a series of theatre groups on maize storage and marketing has been conducted for farmers. However, the main thrust of post-harvest extension at present is the promotion of improved storage structures more or less through a T&V approach.
It is recommended that MAFF gives serious consideration to developing a strategy for longer term training (in-country or externally) in storage, post-harvest handling and marketing, including an analytical and participatory approach to solving post-harvest problems, for a core of post-harvest specialists.
Post-harvest development strategies need to be tailored to the specific circumstances of a district. It is therefore recommended that consideration be given to formation of a district-level group, or committee, with representation from extension, marketing, post-harvest specialists close to the practicalities of the subject (within the district or the province, at least) and representatives of donor-assisted programmes. The objectives of the group, meeting under the chairmanship of the DACO, would be:
Women are major players in both the production and post-production sectors for maize and cassava yet they seem to benefit less than men from extension, particularly as the service is male dominated. This gender imbalance is being addressed by MAFF with the establishmentof the Women and Youth Unit within the Extension Branch. A need to recruit more female staff into the extension service has been recognised. Whilst this policy is to be encouraged it is recommended that an investigation be undertaken to determine the underlying reasons why so few women are attracted to the extension service.
The recruitment of more women into the extension service is one approach to addressing the gender imbalance but more can be done within the service as it exists at present. It is recommended that gender issues be given a higher priority within the in-house training programme for all extension staff.
Post-harvest research in Zambia based at FCSU has concentrated almost exclusively on the development of improved storage structures for maize. Financial and staffing constraints have limited the extent to which the Unit can interact with extension or with producers. As a result, research is not targeted specifically to the needs of the producer within the liberalised market.
It is recommended that the FCSU be strengthened with personnel also being out-stationed at the provincial level, to improve availability of specialist post-harvest advice to district and field extension staff; to improve identification of issues of concern to producers; and to implement appropriate adaptive and participatory research.
8.3 The Post-production System for Maize
There appear to be no major technical difficulties associated with harvesting and drying of maize. If harvested very late some loss may occur due to insect attack and if cobs are very dry there may be some physical loss through shelling as the cob is removed. There is some risk of mould damage to cobs during drying, especially if maize is harvested early and kept in poorly ventilated structures that do not facilitate rapid drying. Producers are aware of these problems and generally take action to minimise loss. There is little justification in promoting the use of the rectangular crib in the system as it operates at present. However, there may be situations in which the crib has special advantages:
It is recommended that the Food Conservation and Storage Unit, Mount Makulu Research Station investigate the costs and benefits of the rectangular crib under a range of scenarios, including those above, before further promotion of the structure is undertaken.
Before liberalisation producers had greater access to mechanical shellers through the Co-operatives; maize was processed quickly and with minimal damage to grains. Manual methods of shelling maize are now widespread. This is time and labour consuming, especially for women who are already overburdened with other tasks. It results in considerable amounts of breakage in grains and hence a poorer quality product.
Hand operated shelling machines, available at a competitive price in Lusaka, appear to offer a number of benefits including: a saving of time and labour, reduced levels of loss and potential for increasing farm incomes. It is recommended that further investigation of the availability and costs of hand shellers in other areas of the country be undertaken and this information made available to producers. It is further recommended that the FAO’s Special Programme on Food Security investigate opportunities of introducing shellers into its operational areas, especially in Kalomo and Kaoma.
Before market liberalisation it made good sense for farmers to sell maize immediately after harvest at fixed prices and then to buy subsidised meal later in the season to make up the shortfall in maize produced solely for home consumption. Producers were not prepared for the introduction of free market trading. Even now, farmers show some naiveté about marketing and there seems to be a widespread belief that the loss of the guaranteed market and fixed prices is only temporary and that government will intervene once more.
Whilst storage on the farm, to take advantage of seasonal price increases, is now, in theory, an option there is no tradition to store more than is required for household needs. There are also technical difficulties in maintaining quality of hybrid varieties of maize in long term storage. Moreover, farmers need to sell at least some of their produce to meet financial commitments soon after harvest but now face difficulties in finding a good market. There are a number of options open to the producer including:
Producers feel isolated and uninformed about the implications and working of the liberalised market. They need advice aimed at solving their current storage and marketing problems. It is, therefore, recommended that the delivery of storage and marketing extension advice be strengthened. Training for extension staff should equip them to assist farmers:
8.3.4 Improved Structures for On-farm Storage
It would appear that the improved storage structures perform satisfactorily but uptake by farmers has been poor. There has been no evaluation of the uptake and impact of the structures following the introduction of demonstration units. A considerable amount of effort is being devoted to promotion of improved structures, especially the brick bin in Southern Province. A preliminary economic assessment of the improved structures indicates that the brick bin, at least, is a viable alternative to the traditional systems. However, promotion of structures that are unacceptable to producers can do untold harm to extension efforts. It is, therefore, recommended that a critical assessment be undertaken as a matter of urgency, especially in Southern Province, through the FAO’s Special Programme on Food Security and the Southern Province Household Food Security Project, to ensure that they are economical, technically suitable and socially acceptable in the areas in which they are to be promoted.
The appearance and establishment in Zambia of this new storage pest poses a significant threat to farm-stored maize and to the maize trade. Maize stored on the cob cannot be adequately protected and the introduction of the concept of shelling maize (even traditional varieties intended for home consumption) and treating it with insecticide will require a major extension effort and adds yet another dimension to the training needs of extension staff.
LGB poses a threat to trade, particularly at the regional level, by inhibiting export of maize to areas unaffected by the pest. Knowledge about the pest and its control among the farming communities visited and, surprisingly, among some extension staff was scant.
The National Larger Grain Borer Containment and Control Programme has developed a strategy of integrated pest and commodity management for control and containment of LGB at farm-level, in local, provincial and regional trade, and in the wider environment, through biological control (by release of a beetle predator). As part of the strategy for control of LGB on farms, NLCCP recommends the use of improved mud- or cement-plastered baskets/bins (rather than brick bins) for storage of shelled, treated maize. NLCCP has in place a programme to raise public awareness and to conduct training and technical workshops.
It is recommended that the NLCCP gives particular attention to raising public awareness and strengthens its information and training programmes. It must also prepare a strategy for local action, to be initiated by MAFF, for areas where LGB is detected in flight traps. It is further recommended that extension advice on control of LGB be harmonised with the post-harvest (storage) advice being offered by the extension personnel generally and through special projects such as SPFS, SPHFSP and others being implemented through NGOs.
Satisfactory, long-term storage of hybrid maize requires that the grain be treated with an insecticide. Availability of storage insecticides is very variable, usually restricted to a few outlets in major towns, but insecticides for protection of grain against LGB are difficult to find. An efficient system of distribution is currently lacking and needs to be developed, particularly for rural areas. The NLCCP is to address the issue of insecticides for LGB. Pesticide retailers see little demand from farmers for storage insecticides but would respond. Farmers are largely unaware of the costs and benefits of treating maize with insecticide for long term storage and indications are that if information was provided demand for insecticide would increase. It is, therefore, recommended that extension staff actively promote the use of storage insecticides for long-term storage of maize by explaining the costs and benefits to farmers and acting as a link between producers and insecticide distributors.
There is some interest among farmers in communal storage as a means of improving access to maize marketing and the idea is supported by the RIF. However, storage costs may be prohibitive. Elsewhere in Africa communal storage groups do not have an outstanding record of performance and enterprises have failed because of a weak group structure, poor management procedures and lack of technical knowledge on storage and grain quality maintenance.
It is recommended that, when considering applications for assistance in establishing communal storage facilities, the RIF administrators satisfy themselves that the above issues have been addressed and that, where necessary, the applicants be directed to appropriate sources of technical, financial and business management advice.
8.4 The Post-Production System for Cassava
The major technical constraints in the cassava post-production system are in: peeling, drying and processing (pounding/milling).
Traditional varieties of cassava are difficult to peel and process because of their shape and size. This problem is being addressed by the cassava breeding programme of the RTIP in Mansa. New varieties of cassava with good sized, straight, tubers with softer skin have been released but demand outstrips the availability of new planting material. It is recommended that efforts be made to extend the seed multiplication programmes.
Drying of cassava, especially in the rainy season is a major constraint and has serious household food security implications. Although it is theoretically possible to dry a sufficient quantity of cassava before the onset of the rains which could be drawn upon during the rainy season, shortage of labour for harvesting and drying is a constraint for many. The RTIP is also addressing this problem through development of a drier made from bricks. Investigations are at an early stage but there is widespread interest amongst farmers. Provisional costs for the prototype drier are likely to put the drier beyond the reach of all but the wealthier farmers. It is recommended that further investigation be undertaken to establish whether a similar design, using low-cost or no-cost materials will function satisfactorily.
There may be opportunities to introduce and operate the drier on a communal basis or for drying to be added to the services offered at hammermills. It is recommended that these options be included in the programme of participatory evaluation of the drier.
Traditionally, in the rural areas, cassava is pounded using a pestle and mortar but access to hammermills for cassava processing is now increasing, particularly in Mansa District (and in Luapula Province generally) and in Kaoma.
Hammermills have the potential for relieving the drudgery of the traditional hand pounding of cassava. However, many consumers find the milled flour to be too fine and inferior to that of hand pounded cassava and mill operators are sometime reluctant to mill cassava because it is claimed that the flour causes blockages of the machinery. The RTIP at Mansa has initiated a programme to investigate these difficulties. It is recommended that the research programme involves producers and hammermill operators in the design and evaluation of trials.
Hammermills relieve the drudgery of hand-pounding of maize and cassava and their adoption has been rapid, particularly in the rural areas. Continued expansion is likely but care is needed lest milling services reach saturation point in a particular area and businesses fail.
There was no evidence from the survey that the presence of a hammermill encouraged greater retention of grain on-farm.
Mills, particularly in the more remote areas, may be out of action for long periods because of mechanical breakdowns due to difficulties in obtaining spare parts or failure to budget for them. The frequency and type of breakdown appear to be related to the technical capability of operators and/or access to specialist mechanical skills.
Survival of hammermill businesses will depend on their cost-effectiveness and financial management. Routine maintenance and repair costs will be an important factor. There are opportunities for milling a variety of other products and for adding other income-generating activities at the mill site (e.g. a cassava drier in Mansa District perhaps) to improve profitability of the mill.
The hammermill industry is in need of support through improved access to spare parts, and technical, financial and business management advice as was once provided through the ZAMS project. In the absence of such projects, formation of hammermill operator associations may improve access to, and financing of spares and specialist advice or training. It is recommended that formation of such associations be promoted and support services co-ordinated through an appropriate body such as the Agri-business Department of ZCF.