How to Make? An Improved Soap .. Not just for more Foam (GTZ, 1993, 71 p.) C. Saponification of simple fats C.I. Peanut oil C.II. Copra oil C.III. Cotton oil C.IV. Shea butter C.V. Palm oil C.VI. Palmkernel oil C.VII. Tallows (cow and mutton) C.VIII. Fat (pork) C.IX. Neem oil C.X. Pourghere oil C.XI. Castor oil C.XII. Sesame oil

How to Make? An Improved Soap .. Not just for more Foam (GTZ, 1993, 71 p.)

C. Saponification of simple fats

C.I. Peanut oil

It is extracted from peanut seeds (Arachis hypogaea). As edible oil, it possess the followings characteristics:

Physic-chemical characteristics:

Density at 15°C:	0,911 - 0,925
Solidification point:	-2 to + 3°C
Iodine number:	84 - 105
Saponification value:	185 - 195
INS Factor:	80 - 111
Intake in insaponifiable:	0,5 - 1%
Intake of the alkaline solution indicated for saponification:	18 to 42 °Be

The soap obtained from caustic soda is hard enough and of white color. It has a good washing power and develops a soft effect on the skin but foams little. It is stable at storage (doesn't become rancid).

Preparation of soap

Pre-treatment

Raw peanut oil doesn't presents a strong color. It's scent is pleasant and is not very accentuated. The pre-treatment for saponification can thus be limited to the purification of the fragments and gums contained in the pressed oil.

To achieve this, you mix the latter with salted hot water and you boil the mixture for about 20 to 30 minutes.

Then you stop the heating and let the mixture become cold. Two stages are then formed: the upper stage composed of the purified oil should then be extracted for saponification.

The salted water to be added should have a concentration of l0 %. The quantity to be mixed with the raw oil is of 25% of the weight of the latter. To purify 100 Kg of raw oil according to that method you need: 25 Kg of salted water at 10% that is to say 2,5 Kg of cooking salt dissolved in 22,5 l of hot water.

Saponification

The adequate techniques here indicated is the semi-hot process.

Recipe:
100 Kg of purified oil
38,8 of caustic soda at 40 degree
5 Kg kaolin in fine powder

Figure

How to carry out the operations

- Weight the necessary quantity of purified oil;
- Heat the oil up to a temperature of 55 - 60 °C in a boiler;
- Add slowly by mixing the calculated quantity of alkaline (with an excess of 0,1 to 2 %) under the form of a solution at 40 °Be (36,95 % of NaOH);
- After adding all the alkaline, continue mixing during a few minutes until you see the appearance of an emulsion;
- Close the boiler into which an auto-heating phenomenon happens, due to the heat production accompanying the saponification reaction (in the big boilers in full charge, the temperature can increase up to 95°C );
- Leave it till the temperature decreases down to 60 °c and control the quality of the produced soaps;
- Let it cold down to 50 °C and mix in the additive substances (kaolin for example at 5 %) the perfumes and colors (all these additives should be stable to alkaline);
- Pour the mass into moulds and leave it become cold;
- Cut them into bars and eventually into pieces.

C.II. Copra oil

Extracted from coconut (Cocos nucifera), it has the following essential properties:

Density at 15 °C:	0,914 - 0,916
Solidification poin:	20 - +28 °C
Iodine number:	7 - 10
Saponification value:	250 - 262
INS Factor:	240 - 255
intake in insaponifiable:	0,4 - 1,2%
Caustic soda solution indicated for saponification:	26 to 40 °Be

The soda soap is white, very hard. It can incorporate big quantities of salted water. Easily soluble in water, it forms an abundant but less stable foam. The cleaning power is also very good, unfortunately the effect on the skin is rather harsh (rashes on the skin).

Preparation of soap

The saponification of copra oil is easy, even at cold. The strong alkaline solutions are well appropriate to that end (25-40 °Be). The copra oil soaps are low stable to storage and have a great tendency to the deterioration of their structure and to getting rancid.

Pre-treatment

As a simple method of refining copra oil, the washing in boiling salted water can be used (see detailed description in the chapter peanut oil).

Saponification

Copra oil is well appropriate for soap preparation by using the cold process.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified copra oil;
42,31 Kg of caustic potassium solution at 26 °Be
31,40 Kg of caustic soda solution at 40 °Be

Figure

How to carry out operations

- Weigh the necessary quantity of purified oil and eventually heat at 35- 40 °C
- Add slowly and in small portions, the alkaline solution necessary to saponification (a method consists in using two solutions with different concentrations: the low concentrated is vigorously mixed in order to ensure the formation of an emulsion and then the strong intake solution is incorporated into );
- Go on mixing until the mass gets a sticky (gluey) consistency;
- Add the additive products and eventually the scents and colors, by mixing;
- Pour the hot mass into big moulds;
- You then close the moulds in order to ensure auto-heating accompanying the saponification reaction;
- After cording and hardening of the blocs, take them out of the moulds and cut into bars (eventually in pieces).

C.III. Cotton oil

It is extracted from cotton seeds (Gossypum sp.).

The physical and chemical characteristics are the following:

Density at 15 °C:	0,92 - 0,93
Solidification point:	0 to 4 °C
Iodine number:	100 - 117
Saponification value:	190 - 198
INS Factor:	73 - 98
Intake in insaponifiable:	0,50 - 1,50 %
Intake of caustic soda solution indicated for saponification (refined oil):	12 to 15°Be

Caustic soda soap is yellow colored, soft and less soluble in water. It has a good washing power and produced an average stable foam. It's effect on the skin is rather smooth. Not well adapted to conservation, it shows a great tendency to formation of stains and to growing rancid during storage.

Preparation

Pre-treatment

The raw cotton oil presents a dark brown color due mainly to its intake in gossypol (a toxic polyphenolic substance). Moreover it produces a specific scent and should consequently under go a refining before saponification if you want to achieve a product with acceptable quality.

As simple method of purification you can use the refining by treating with a light alkaline solution. The alkaline contained in this solution forms with the free fatty acids of oil small flocks of soap, which adsorb and eliminate from the oil odorous and colorours substances as well as impurities. These flocks are then eliminated by settling.

The process consists in:

- Weighing the quantity of raw oil and heating it at about 50 °C;
- Adding an alkaline solution of 20 °Be (about 10% of the raw oil weight) by stirring during 30 minutes;
- Leave it become cold (flocks will then be deposited) and settle the refined oil.

Saponification

To achieve this the semi-hot process should be used.

Recipe:
100 Kg of purified cotton oil;
34,4 Kg of caustic soda solution at 12 °Be;
62,75 Kg of caustic soda solution at 24 °Be;
5 Kg of kaolin.

Figure

How to carry out the operation

- Weigh the necessary quantity of purified oil;
- Heat the oil in the boiler at a temperature of 55 - 60 °C;
- Stop the heating;
- Add the necessary quantity of alkaline solution by stirring (in case you use caustic soda take a solution at 12 °Be)
- Go-on stirring during a few minutes until the appearance of an indication that the temperature has really gone up;
- Stir from time to time and let the temperature decrease to about 60°C, and then check the quality of the soap;
- Add and incorporate the auxiliaries;
- Pour the hot mass into moulds and leave it to become cold;
- Take the hardened blocks out of the moulds and cut them into bars and pieces.

C.IV. Shea butter

It is extracted from the karitea nuts (Butyrospermum parkii). It is a picking product from the african savannas.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 15 °C :	0,917 - 0,918
Solidification point:	17 to 27 °C
Iodine:	55 - 67
Saponification index:	178 - 196
INS:	111 - 141
Intake in insaponifiable:	2 - 11%
Intake of alkaline solution indicated for saponification (refined oil):	10 to 24 °Be

Caustic soda soap is hard and of white color. Less soluble in water, it foams little and slowly, develops a very smooth effect on the skin and has a good washing power. Unfortunately it is less stable at storage (change of color and becomes rancid).

Preparation of soap

The shea butter has a tan color and a specific scent. It contains proportion of insaponifiable mainly composed of karitene.

As pretreatment before saponification, the washing with salted boiling water is indicated (see description of the process in Chapter C.I: peanut-oil)

Saponification

The semi-hot process is well indicated for the karitea butter

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified shea butter;
67,75 Kg of caustic potassium solution at 10 °Be;
50 Kg of caustic soda solution at 24 °Be;

Figure

How to carry out the operation

- Weigh the quantity of butter;
- Heat the weighed butter in the boiler at a temperature of 55 - 60°C
- Stop the heating;
- Add slowly and in small proportions the 10 °Be caustic potassium by stirring well/formation of an emulsion);
- Add in portions the 24 °Be caustic soda solution by stirring (the temperature increases)
- Stir from time to time;
- Let the temperature decrease to about 50 - 60 °C;
- Then add and incorporate the additives;
- Pour the soap into moulds;
- Leave it get cold and hard;
- Take out the moulds and cut into bars (and eventually into pieces).

C.V. Palm oil

It is extracted from the pulp of the palm fruit (Elais sp.). Industrial plantation are done in equatorial zones with abundant rains. In humid savannas, the palm tree grow naturally in the valleys along the rivers so that palm oil must be seen as picking product in this ecological zone.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 15 °C:	0,921 - 0,94
Solidification point:	24 to 30 °C
Iodine:	44 -58
Saponification value:	195 - 205
INS Factor:	137 - 161
Intake in insaponifiable:	< 0,5%
Intake of alkaline solution indicated for saponification (refined oil):	10 to 40 °Be

The sodium soap is hard and of yellow-pale color. It is well soluble in water and slowly forms a lot of stable foam. It has a very good washing power and exerts a very smooth effect on the skin. Unscented, it develops an odor which recalls the oil of origin. It is stable at stockage (doesn't grow rancid).

Palm oil constitutes on of the fat most used in soap-making.

Soap preparation

Pre-treatment

The raw oil has a strong color going from the yellow orange to redbrown. It should then undergo a refining (purification and decoloration) if you want to achieve good colored soaps.

The washing at salted boiling water constitutes a simple means of purification (see technical details of the process in the chapter "peanut oil").

For the bleaching (decoloration) the thermic treatment is a simple method.

It can be implemented as follows:

- Heat raw oil in a wide-opening container up to 200 - 250 °C by stirring from time to time;
- Carry on the operation until a piece of paper which is dipped into the oil doesn't show any coloration.

Saponification

The refined palm oil, according to the above described process, is well appropriate for saponification. To achieve this you use the cold process as well as the semi-hot one.

Recipe:

100 Kg of refined palm oil;
35,50 Kg of caustic soda solution at 15 °Be;
30,65 Kg of caustic soda solution at 40 °Be

Figure

How to conduct the operations

- Weigh the necessary quantity of refined oil and heat it in the boiler to a temperature of 55 - 60 °C;
- Stop the heating and add slowly in small portions the 15 °Be caustic soda solution (formation of emulsion);
- Then add the portion of the strong caustic soda solution (40 °Be) by stirring;
- Stir from time to time and let the temperature decrease progressively;
- Incorporate the additives when the mass gets a temperature of about 55 °C ;
- Then pour the soap into moulds;
- Leave it get cold and hard;
- Take out of the moulds and cut the lumps into bars and pieces.

C.VI. Palmkernel oil

It is extracted from the seeds of oilpalm fruit (Elais sp.).

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 15 °C:	0,925 - 0,935
Solidification point:	19 to 30 °C
Iodine number:	14 - 20
Saponification value:	242 - 254
INS Factor:	222 - 240
Intake in insaponifiable:	0,2 - 0,8%
Intake of alkaline solution indicated for saponification (refined oil):	26 to 40 °Be.

The soda soap is very hard and has a yellow-cream color. After graining out, it can even become breakable. The washing power is very good (even in cold water) and foaming appears quickly, but the foam is less stable. Stable at stockage, it develops unfortunately a harsh effect on the skin.

Soap preparation

Palm kernel (palmist) oil has a white yellow color. It's soaping characteristics are similar to those of copra oil. As the latter it is easily saponifiable.

Pre-treatment

The pre-treatment necessary to the saponification of palmist oil consists in the purification of raw oil. This can be achieved by washing it in boiling salted water (see detailed description in the chapter "peanut-oil").

Saponification

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified oil;
19,94 Kg of caustic potassium solution at 15°Be;
38 Kg of soda solution at 40 °Be;
5 Kg of salt.

Figure

The palmist oil is well appropriate for saponification at cold. In this purpose you can use two alkaline solutions of different concentration.

How to conduct the operations

- Weight the necessary quantity of purified oil and heat it in the boiler at 35 - 40 °C;
- Add slowly and in small portions (by stirring) the alkaline solution of weak concentration);
- After the appearance of a good emulsion, add the concentrated alkaline solution by stirring intensively;
- Go on mixing it until the mass of soap gets a high stickiness;
- Then add the auxiliaries and keep stirring in order to warrant their incorporation;
- Pour the hot mass into big moulds (immediately covered in order to keep in the heat of the reaction);
- When the blocks of soap get cold and hard take them at the moulds and cut into bars (and eventually into pieces).

C.VII. Tallows (cow and mutton)

They are similar fats, deposited by these animals as food stock in special parts of the body (mainly in the abdominal cavity). They can be extracted by cooking in presence of an acid or a base.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

	COW	MUTTON
Density at 15 °C:	0,936 - 0,952	0,936 - 0,960
Solidification point:	30 to 38 °C	32 - 45 °C
Iodine number:	32 -47	31 - 47
Saponification value:	193 - 200	192 - 198
INS Factor:	146 - 168	145 - 167
Intake in insaponifiable:	0,3 - 0,8%	0,1 - 0,6%
Intake of alkaline solution indicated for saponification:	8 to 15 °Be	8 - 15°Be

Sodium soaps of tallow are grey-white to yellow-cream. Very hard (breakable) and less soluble in water, they produce a little, but stable foam. They possess a good washing power and a very smooth effect on the skin. Mutton tallow produces a soap having a specific odor.

Soap preparation
Pre-treatment

Due to the specific odor they produce, tallows should undergo a deodorisation before their saponification.

The extended washing in salted boiling water (with addition of essential plants extracts) can give good results.

Saponification

Saponification of tallow can be better made with light concentration alkaline solutions (8 to 15 °Be). It is however appropriate to use two solutions of different concentration semi-hot processing is also very well indicated.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified beef suet;
66,6 Kg of caustic potassium solution at 8 °Be;
36,59 Kg of caustic soda solution at 35 °Be;
5 Kg of kaolin.

Figure

How to conduct the operations:

- Weigh the necessary quantity of purified tallow and heat it in the boiler up to a temperature of 55-60 °C ;
- Stop the heating and add slowly and by small portions the caustic potassium solution by stirring;
- Then add the portion of caustic soda solution by stirring on (the reaction produces a lot of heat);
- Let the temperature decrease progressively (add and mix in the secondary products when the temperature decreases down to 50 - 55 °C )
- Pour the soap into moulds;
- Leave it become cold and hard;
- Take out of moulds and cut into bars and pieces.

C.VIII. Fat (pork)

It is obtained through melting (cooking) of pork fat.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 15 °C:	0,914 - 0,922
Solidification point:	22 to 32 °C
Iodine number:	70
Saponification value:	193 - 202
INS Factor:	123 - 132
Concentration of insaponifiable:	0,1 - 1%
Concentration of indicated alkaline solution for saponification:	8 to 15 °Be;

The soda soap is white, hard and presents a fine and compact structure. Well soluble in water, it produces quickly an abundant stable foam, has a good washing power and produces a smooth effect on the skin.

Preparation of soap
Pre-treatment

If necessary, washing in boiling water can be used as method of purification of fat (pork).

Saponification

The soapmaking characteristics of fat are similar to those of tallow. As such, saponification should be done with light alkaline solutions.

The semi-hot process is well indicated as a technique of saponification.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified fat;
68,80 Kg of caustic soda at 8 °Be;
30,35 Kg of caustic soda solution at 35 °Be.

Figure

How to conduct the operations:

- Weigh the quantity of fat and heat it in the boiler at about 55 - 60 °C;
- Stop the heating and add slowly and in small proportions the low concentration alkaline solution by stirring well (appearance of an emulsion);
- Then add progressively the strong alkaline solution by stirring (increasing temperature shows good saponification process);
- Let the temperature decrease progressively down to 50 °C and add the secondary products;
- Pour the soap into moulds;
- Leave it become cold and hard;
- Take out of the moulds and cut the blocks into bars (and eventually into pieces).

C.IX. Neem oil

It is extracted from neem seeds (Azadirachta indica), a very rustic and drought resistant tree. Neem is widespread in semi arid zones is used in many sahelians countries in reforestation programs The oil has a yellow-green color, a less pleasant scent and a bitter taste. It has medical and insect repellent qualities.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 30 °C:	0,9143
Iodine number:	65 - 69
Saponification value:	196
INS Factor:	127 - 131
Concentration of insaponifiable:	2 - 2,5%
Concentration of appropriate alkaline solution for saponification:	26 to 45 °Be

Soda soap is very hard, of dirty yellow color and of unpleasant odor. It produces quickly a great quantity of a stable foam, develops a good washing power and a smooth and antiseptic effect on the skin (sometimes used as medical soap).

Preparation of soap
Pre-treatment

Treatment with salted boiling water is the most simple method of purification of neem oil.

However due to its strong coloration and unpleasant odor the oil should be deeply refined before being saponified. The methods used to achieve this, such as: extraction with alcohol, treatment with alcohol alkaline solution, bleaching in chloride water are however somewhat complex in their implementation.

An easier alternative for production of good laundry soaps consists in practicing the graining out of formed soap. The coloring and scenting substances are then diluted in the water stage and are thus eliminated from the final product.

Saponification

The hot process followed by the releasing is well indicated for production of improved soap from simply purified neem oil.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified neem oil;
50 Kg of caustic soda solution at 30 °Be;
10 Kg of salt.

Figure

How to conduct the operations

- Weigh the quantity of purified oil and heat it in the boiler up to 60 - 70 °C;
- Add slowly and in small portion the quantity of alkaline solution by stirring (continues heating without interruption);
- After adding all the alkaline, you heat the mass up to ebullition and keep this status up for a few hours (4 hours);
- Then grain out by mixing in the 10 Kg of salt precedently humidified (the initial mass builts then two (2) phases: the inferior liquid phase composed of water and glycerine containing the main scent and color substances);
- Eliminate water and melt again the soap;
- Then add the secondary substances by stirring and pour the hot masses into moulds;
- When it gets cold and hard, take out of the moulds and cut into bars or pieces.

C.X. Pourghere oil

Extracted from physic nut (Jatropha curcas, L), a rustic tree, widespread in the inter-tropical regions, it is a non edible oil with marked purgative qualities.

Physical and chemical characteristics:

Density at 15 °C:	0,920
Solidification point:	-13 to +5 °C
Iodine number:	95 - 110
Saponification value:	185 - 210
INS Factor:	75 - 115
Concentration of appropriate alkaline solution for saponification:	15 to 45 °Be

The soda soap is white and soft. It quickly produces an abundant and stable foam, possesses a good cleaning power, and develops a smooth effect on the skin.

Preparation of soap
Pre-treatment

Pourghere oil presents neither a strong coloration nor a marked unpleasant odor, its pretreatment for soapmaking can be limited to simple purification (washing in salted boiling water).

Saponification

Traditionally the saponification of pourghere oil is carried out with a potassium alkaline solution extracted from plant ashes.

For production of improved soap, the semi-hot process is well indicated.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified pourghere oil;
13,90 Kg of caustic soda solution at 15 °Be;
36 Kg of caustic soda solution at 40 °Be;
5 Kg of finely sprayed kaolin.

Figure

How to conduct the operations:

- Weigh the quantity of purified oil and heat it in the boiler at 55 - 60 °C;
- Stop the heating and slowly add, in small portions, the low concentration alkaline solution by stirring;
- When an emulsion appears, add progressively (by stirring) the strong alkaline solution (the temperature of the mixture increases strongly and indicates a good achievement of the saponification);
- Let the temperature decrease down to 55 °C and mix in the kaolin (then eventually the color and the scent);
- Pour into moulds and let it get cold and hard;
- Take out of moulds and cut into bars and pieces.

C.XI. Castor oil

It is extracted from the seeds of castor plant (Ricinus communis L).

Physical and chemical characteristics

Density at 15 °C:	0,959 - 0,967
Solidification point:	- 10 to 12 °C
Iodine number:	82 - 90
Saponification value:	177 - 187
INS factor:	87 - 105
Intake of alkaline solution appropriate for saponification:	26 to 40 °gre.

The soda soap is very hard and of white color. It is easily soluble in water, foams little, possesses however a quite good cleaning power and has a smooth effect on the skin.

Soap preparation

The soap making properties of castor oil is similar to those of copra oil. So saponification is thus easy to achieve at cold status with strong alkaline solutions (caustic soda for instance).

Pre-treatment

Washing in boiling water can be used as simple purification method.
The purified oil is uncolored or light yellow.

Saponification

Castor oil is easily saponified and well adapted to the cold process

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified oil;
30,10 Kg of caustic potassium solution at 26 °gre;
22,30 Kg of caustic soda solution at 40 ° gre;
10 Kg of salt.

Figure

How to conduct the operations

- Weigh the quantity of purified oil and heat at 35 - 40 °C in the boiler;
- Stop the heating and add slowly and in small portions the alkaline solution of weak concentration;
- After an emulsion is formed, add the strong alkaline solution until the mass gets an adequate stickiness;
- Then pour the hot mass into big moulds, close up (in order to provoke the auto-heating of the mass through the saponification reaction);
- When the blocks get cold and hard, take them out of the moulds and cut into bars and pieces.

C.XII. Sesame oil

It is extracted from sesame (Sesamum indicum) seeds. As high quality edible oil, it is less used for soap making.

Physical-chemical characteristics

Density at 15 °C:	0,921 - 0,926
Solidification point:	- 6 to - 3 °C
Iodine number:	103 - 118
Saponification value:	187 - 193
INS Factor:	69 - 90
Intake of alkaline solution appropriate for saponification:	12 to 15 °gre.

The soda soap is soft and of reddish to brown color. Well soluble in water, it produces a lot of foam and has a good cleaning power. It develops a smooth effect on the skin.

Preparation of soap
Pre-treatment

Sesame oil produced by hot pressing has a dark color and its usage for soap-making needs a pre-treatment.

To achieve this you wash it repeatedly in salted boiling water (refer to the detailed description of the process in the chapter peanut oil).

Saponification

The semi-hot process of saponification is indicated for sesame oil.

Recipe:

100 Kg of purified oil;
42,42 Kg of caustic soda solution at 12 °gre;
29,12 Kg of finely sprayed kaolin.

Figure

How to conduct the operations:

- Weigh the necessary quantity of purified oil and heat it in the boiler up to 55 - 60 °C;
- Stop heating and add the quantity of weak concentrated alkaline solution in small portions by stirring;
- When an emulsion appears, add the high concentrated alkaline solution by stirring (the temperature increases progressively, which indicates a good achievement of the reaction);
- Leave it till the temperature decrease down to about 55-60 °C and add eventual auxiliaries
- Pour the hot mass into moulds and let it get cold and hard;
- Take the blocks out of the moulds and cut into bars and pieces.