Appendix extracts from synthetic reviews

A. Summary: school factors and achievement in the developing world
B: General education and development research review

A. Summary: school factors and achievement in the developing world

School quality indicator		Expected direction of relationship	Total number of analyses	Number of analyses confirming effect
School Expenditures
1. Expenditure per pupil		+	11	6
2. Total school expenditures		+	5	2
Specific Material Inputs
3. Class size			21	5
4. School size		+	9	4
5. Instructional materials
	Texts and reading materials	+	24	16
	Desks	+	3	3
6. Instructional media [radio]		+	3	3
7. School building quality		+	3	2
8. Library size and activity		+	18	15
9. Science laboratories		+	11	4
10. Nutrition & feeding programs		+	6	5
Teacher Quality
11. Teacher's length of schooling
	Total years of teacher's schooling	+	26	12
	Years of tertiary & teacher training	+	31	22
12. In-service teacher training		-	6	5
13. Teacher's length of experience		+	23	10
14. Teacher's verbal proficiency		+	2	2
15. Teacher's salary level		+	14	5
16. Teacher's social class background +			10	7
17. School's percentage of full-time teachers		+	2	1
18. Teacher's punctuality & (low) absenteeism		+	2	0
Teaching Practices/Classroom Organisation
19. Length of instructional program +			14	12
20. Homework frequency		+	8	6
21. Active learning by students		+	3	1
22. Teacher's expectations of pupil performance		+	3	3
23. Teacher's time spent on class preparation		+	5	4
School Management
24. Quality of principal		+	7	4
25. Multiple shifts of classes each day		-	3	1
26. Student boarding		+	4	3
27. Student repetition of grade		+	5	1

Source: Fuller B, What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World, Review of Educational Research, Vol 57 (3), 255-292,1987

B: General education and development research review

Year	Reference	Data	Findings
School Effects
1987	Fuller	review	variety of school inputs do contribute to achievement
1987	Lockheed & Hanushek	review	radio and text-books more cost-effective than teacher training; academic more cost-effective than vocational education
1983	Heyneman & Loxley	IEA database	larger effect of school factors in low income countries
1986	Armitage et al	student Survey Brazil	teacher quality and materials have significant effect on achievement in rural areas
1984	Loxley	Botswana students	school effects on reading and maths greater than family effects; teacher training and library resources important
Sector Management
1983	Heyneman & Loxley	Egypt-primary	students perform better with principals who had attended more training courses
1986	Figueroa	Mexico-primary	differences in management style, curriculum and classroom organisation between public and private schools
1987	Fuller	several school quality studies including management variables	headmaster education and experience have positive effect on achievement
Educational Technology
1982	Clearing House on Development Communication	Niger Teacher Training	high cost of TV but reduced dropout
1985	Kulik et al	Review	computer-assisted instruction has positive effect in primary
1986	Carnoy et al	Review	many developing countries are investing in computer literacy programmes but no research basis for doing so
1986	Oxford et al	Radio-Kenya	helped elementary students perform better in listening and reading
1986	Walker	Radio-Dominican Republic	low-cost and cost-effective relative to traditional inputs [preliminary findings]
1987	Anzalone	Review	radio when properly used is cost effective; TV expensive and contributes little to achievement
1987	Freeman	Grenada	use of computers significantly disturbed by poor electrical supply
1987	Williams	Trinidad & Tobago	within schools females had greater access; outside school males had
Vocational and Academic Secondary Education
1982	Schiefelbein & Fartel	8th grade Chilean students	tracking into vocational curricula where academic achievement is not emphasised will lower student achievement
1983	Hinchliffe	Tanzania	higher annual unit recurrent costs for al education compared to academic
1985	Cummings et al	Kenya	staffing and capital costs higher for industrial subjects
1985	Lee	South Korea secondary graduates	in-plant vocational training is more effective than training in vocational schools
1985	Metcalf	Review of studies	Rate of return to vocational training high enough to justify investment
1985	Psacharopoulos & Loxley	follow-up survey of secondary graduates in Columbia & Tanzania	no labour advantage to graduates of vocational courses
198(3	Tibi	Thailand	recurrent costs in agriculture and technical colleges higher than in professional colleges
1987	Chung	Hong Kong census	returns to vocational and technical education higher than to general education but significant only for rapidly growing electrical and commercial sectors
1987	Komenan	Ivory Coast labour survey	Technical education has higher payoff than general education but costs are higher at secondary level
1987	Min & Tsang	Worker Survey in Beijing	productivity of vocational and technical education higher than for those with general secondary [auto industry]
1988	Chin-Aleong	Labour force in Trinidad & Tobago	specialised craft students found jobs more quickly than did academic students
1988	Grootaert	Ivory Coast Living Standards	social rates of return are low to vocational and technical education but higher at post secondary levels compared to post-primary
1988	Moock & Bellew	Peru Living Standards Survey	returns similar to vocational and technical education and academic graduates except for self-employed
1988	Noah & Middleton	secondary data from China	need to shift away from apprenticeship vocational and technical education to in school vocational and technical education
1988	Psacharopoulos	Six firms in Peru	higher rate of return for short vocational and technical education courses
Education and the Environment
1983	United Nations	Data from world fertility survey of 22 developing countries	Differential fertility highest in countries with highest levels of development; confirms negative influence of education on fertility
1984	Zachariah & Patel	Fertility decline in India	socioeconomic factors influence family planning practices
Financing Education
1983	Woodhall	secondary data on student loans	student loans available in 30 countries; programs appear successful
1984	Tan et al	Malawi	user fees will have small effect on enrolment; large for low income families
1985	Schiefelbein	private and public schools in Chile	private schools achieve more even when social factors controlled
1986	Jiminez	private and public schools in Bolivia and Paraguay	private schools achieve more even through unit costs are lower
1986	Mingat & Tan	university student	simulation of student loan repayment suggest some recuperation of public costs particularly in Asia and LA
1986	World Bank	Review	cost-recovery and fee-based private education have small negative impact on attendance; possible positive impact on equity in school spending
1987	Jiminez	household survey data	average enrolment might remain stable if fees increase: effects depend on income group
1987	Psacharopoulos	Colombian and Tanzania students	cost of private schooling lower; mixed results for achievement
1988	Gustafsson	Botswana and Zambia	school production units not an important cost factor
1988	Jiminez et al	students and teachers in Thailand	private school students perform better and are more cost-effective

Source: Haddad, W, Carnoy, M, Rinaldi, R, and Regel, O, Education and Development: evidence for new priorities, World Bank Discussion Papers, No 95, The World Bank, Washington, 1991

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