4.6.1 Self realisation
4.6.2 Community participation
4.6.3 Collective action
4.6.4 Resource management
4.6.5 Gender roles
4.6.6 Health
4.6.7 Children's education
4.6.8 Cross case study analysis of empowerment
"Empowerment" is a difficult term to define and is becoming more elusive the more widely that it is used. Rappaport (1986) comments that "Empowerment is like obscenity; you have trouble defining it but you know it when you see it". In essence it is something to do with giving people control over their own lives - whether in the social sphere, the political sphere or the economic sphere. Shetty (1991) identifies a number of features that can be ascribed to an empowerment approach. It is "a dynamic and ongoing process", requiring an "holistic approach", but which is "context specific... defined only within the local social, cultural, economic, political and historical context". Moreover it is focussed on "marginalised groups", "implies redistribution of power", is "democratising" but is also "very much dependent on the perception that marginalised people have of themselves". Lastly, an empowerment approach should "build self-reliance" and be "sustainable".
In the three areas where the REFLECT pilots were developed, the nature of existing power structures and people's relations to them are certainly different. The process of empowerment cannot be conceived similarly by (predominantly male) campesinos in the politicised communities of post-civil war El Salvador as by the women in Bhola Island who rarely, if ever, leave their homestead. The objectives of the REFLECT programmes were different according to these contexts and the means of defining and evaluating empowerment were thus different. Nevertheless we have attempted to integrate the analysis of empowerment across the three pilot programmes under the following headings:
Self Realisation
Community Participation
Collective Action
Resource Management
Gender Roles
Health
Children's Education
It is not possible here to present the full results from each of the pilot programmes though the full evaluations of each are available on request (from ACTIONAID, Hamlyn House, Archway, London N19 5PG).
REFLECT participants from Bangladesh articulate their enthusiasm for the approach.
This section focuses on the impact of the three literacy programmes on the learners' and facilitators' sense of self realisation which is conceived as including individual skills, knowledge and attitudes which will positively affect their self perception and the perception that others have of them.
Learners
"Self-confidence" is sometimes regarded as a problematic concept. Although there may be outward manifestations which we would regard as signs of self-confidence, it is ultimately not something that we can judge from outside but rather something that depends on self-perception. It is closely related to a sense of dignity and self-respect.
Personnel in all three pilot programmes felt that there was a very positive increase in the self confidence of learners, manifested through increased levels of participation in discussions. In Bangladesh for example, women who at first were shy to engage with anyone from outside their community (and would hide their faces, pull down veils etc), were, after a few months, confidently putting themselves forward. When any external visitor now comes and asks what they are doing
the normal response is to proudly display and explain the maps and matrices they have constructed. The level of eloquence and enthusiasm amongst the women is striking. Almost all of them participate actively in the discussions, all trying to get a word in. Most notably the facilitator is usually the quietest person in the circle. Often one has to ask who the facilitator is, as the learners completely take over all explanations and discussions. In contrast, in the control groups women were observed as more withdrawn and the facilitator tended to leap in to answer every question put by an outsider, seeming to fear that the learners might get it wrong.
However it is the women's own judgment that is of paramount importance. In self-evaluations, 72% of learners in Uganda said that they now felt more self-confident, and 76% of learners in Bangladesh said the REFLECT process had been very helpful in generating self confidence. In El Salvador 100% of COMUS REFLECT learners said it helped a lot in generating self-confidence (compared to 42% of learners in the control group).
For self-confidence to lead to self-realisation other skills will certainly be needed. Amongst these, problem solving skills might be regarded as vital. In El Salvador 87% of learners, compared to just 14% in the control group (and 66% of REFLECT learners in Uganda and 54% in Bangladesh) felt that the process had been very useful in helping them develop these skills. The comparison with the Control Group is important here in establishing that the learners are not just giving the answers that we want to hear. In Uganda the evaluation team observed of the Control Groups:
"the methodology did not stimulate entrepreneurial abilities, and tended to hand out information rather than develop problem-solving capacity. One instructor said: 7 really poured everything out....' which made his title of instructor all too accurate."
In contrast one woman learner in a REFLECT circle commented: "Literacy has taught me how to identify my problems...and that I can solve only some of them."
This thoughtful comment summed up the opinion of many learners that the process of map construction, discussion and literacy had given them new insights into the progress of their lives and the problems they faced. These insights encompassed the different social roles they played as domestic, reproductive, productive, and community players.
The Actions Points (described in the following sections) give ample evidence that the learners' statements about problem-solving skills were not empty words, but had already been translated into reality. For example, a seventeen year old with no previous independent income had persuaded his father to divide his land and was enthusiastically implementing new agricultural practices; and a woman whose husband had been unreliable with money was using PRA methods to work out her food accounts for the year - with her husband on the floor of their house. Similar practical applications were found in Bangladesh where, for example, 76% of women learners said that the circle had strengthened their negotiating skills with travelling salesmen (who had previously taken advantage of them).
Knowledge of the local environment must also be considered of crucial importance in facilitating self-realisation. The REFLECT process emphasises the systematisation of existing knowledge and the exchange of experiences between participants rather than the transfer of facts or pre-packaged "knowledge". Nevertheless most participants felt that the process had indeed increased their knowledge in various respects. All 32 of the COMUS REFLECT learners questioned on this point said the process had helped a lot or enormously in enabling them to acquire new knowledge (eg agriculture, natural resources, health issues) compared to 52% in the control group sample. In Uganda, 82% said that they had improved their knowledge of agriculture and 74% had learnt significant new things about protecting their health.
In Bangladesh in a general test on life skills (relating to local health issues, record keeping for credit, survival skills in emergencies and knowledge for income generation) the REFLECT groups performed 68% better than the control groups. The 15-19 year olds did particularly well in REFLECT circles with 87% getting Grade A for life skills. The self evaluation of learners corroborated this with 85% of women saying they had acquired important knowledge relating to savings and credit and 66% saying they gained significantly in understanding new forms of income generation.
Relationships with others in the community is another factor to consider in determining the potential for self-realisation, particularly in a close-knit village community. In El Salvador 84 % of COMUS REFLECT learners said the process had helped a lot or enormously in improving their relations with others outside the circle (compared to 52% in control group). In Bangladesh (in a sample of 59 women) 83% said that the REFLECT circle had contributed to significantly improving their relations with husbands and other male members of their households. However, only 49% said that it had helped improve relations with the wider community. It is interesting here to note a couple of the negative comments. In one shomiti women said that relations with the wider community had deteriorated in the short term because men in the community were very critical of them for learning. In another the fundamentalist mullahs had vigorously opposed the circle saying "Beware! If you join the circle you'll become Christians". The women say they answered: "so long as we are allowed to learn we don't care what we become."
In Uganda many moving testimonies were given to the impact of learning literacy in the REFLECT circles. "Now I can sit at table with my in-laws" declared one male learner testifying to the lack of respect with which he had been treated as a non-literate. This is clearly one important aspect of self realisation and is derived from the general view of non literates as inferior, and not full members of the community. Learners spoke of signing their name in front of a group, where before they had put their thumb print, and the enormous pleasure they felt at that moment.
"I have what I wanted. I can now die" is how one older woman learner expressed this feeling.
"Let me sing, dance and rejoice. I would have died without holding a pen." sang a woman learner who had been previously unhappy that her husband and co-wife were literate, whilst she was unable to read or write at all.
One of the elements which has been most fundamental in all three pilot projects has been the "atmosphere" of the literacy circles. The REFLECT circles do not feel like dry or boring formal places of learning. Rather they are relaxed and full of laughter. In Bangladesh 96% of women said that they enjoyed the circles very much and everyone who has visited a circle will bear testament to the truth of this. The evaluators in Uganda were struck by the enthusiasm and joy of the REFLECT learners in contrast with the control group:
"It seemed that the REFLECT methodology felt easy to learners, while the Picture Chart [Primer] methodology was perceived as difficult, and comparable to being in Primary School 1. Learners in the Control group made very few "Literacy has opened my eyes" style of comments, when compared to the overwhelming enthusiasm of REFLECT learners. This seemed to emphasis the point that only unusually bright and creative learners and instructors could do well with the Picture Chart [Primer] methodology, but that the majority of learners could cope with REFLECT."
Enjoyment must not be under-rated. It is crucial to maintaining the motivation of learners to attend and it is when people are enjoying themselves that learning comes easily. If REFLECT can create a learning environment where people are relaxed and unthreatened enough to enjoy themselves, then this is a solid foundation for self realisation.
Facilitators
Many analyses of literacy programmes focus exclusively on the learners and ignore the teachers or facilitators. In the three REFLECT pilots it was felt important to also evaluate the impact of the programmes on facilitators as they were all local to the villages where they taught. The development of the facilitators as a resource was thus a contribution to community development.
The personal development of the facilitators was particularly noticable in El Salvador.
In interviews with facilitators in El Salvador it was striking to note that one of the main impacts that they noted was that the process has helped them improve their own literacy and numeracy skills. This is consistent with the observation in section 4.4.3 that many had reached only sixth grade in their own primary education and some had reached only third grade. All the facilitators felt that the process has helped them to develop skills for motivating other people and for analysing problems. Their self confidence was often very low prior to teaching and has improved. The following personal changes in their lives were also noted:
· 80% said that they are now more actively involved in community organisations;· 47% now hold significant new positions of responsibility in their community, other than being the facilitator, (eg being president or vice president of the community committee);
· 33% said that they are now planting different crops;
· 53% said that they have actively worked on soil conservation;
Personal testimonies of the facilitators are also revealing. In Los Rios, the facilitator Efrain said "I now fee! a part of my community and I am respected by others". In Las Conchas the facilitator commented: "Now I know how to access information which can help to reduce the isolation of my community".
In Uganda the role of the facilitators was vital. By taking up each Action Point themselves, they acted as role models for their class. Most facilitators had an informal leadership role with their learners, and increasingly with the wider community, as they are asked for advice by older people. Their raised status was indicated by happy comments about being greeted on the pathways, being brought a chair to sit upon etc. Several facilitators commented that this new respect was reducing their dependence on alcohol, and that it would be quite embarrassing to be found drunk when people thought well of them.
In addition, the fortnightly exchange and training groups have developed a spirit of co-operation and challenge. One facilitator may boast of home hygiene improvements, but another will ask why he has not yet built a kitchen.
The importance of their community role is highlighted by the fact that at least half the facilitators have been chosen for leadership roles in education, the church and so on. Many are planning to stand for election to RC1 when the time comes.
The table overleaf shows steps up or down that facilitators felt they had taken since starting their work. They ranged from Very Weak to average and very good, and the activity was carried out with each Parish Training Group.
Clearly the greatest area of progress was directly concerned with their work (facilitation skills), closely followed by agricultural skills and problem solving; the latter being generally taken to mean economic problems. However all these issues were priorities for personal growth and self realisation.
In Bangladesh the facilitators also emphasised that the process of learning to teach with the REFLECT method had led to a positive impact on their own lives. For example they had gained self confidence; they had gained significant knowledge of their community and of local issues; they had developed a strong sense of commitment to their community and were involved in other affairs (particularly in relation to health work and children's education); their skills of analysis had much improved (maps and matrices were useful tools); they were now more involved in local discussions (often sharing the maps and matrices with others in the village, particularly the elders); and there was some impact on their own families as they were now able to advise husbands, fathers or brothers about profitable activities and the best time to invest in different things.
|
PARISH |
GENDER ATTITUDE |
AGRIC SKILL |
PROBLEM SOLVING |
MOTIVATE LEARNERS |
SELF CONF. |
FACIL SKILL |
HEALTH PRACTICE |
|
HAKITARA |
1.0 |
1.5 |
1.6 |
1.5 |
0.9 |
2.0 |
0.6 |
|
BUSORU |
0.5 |
0.8 |
0.9 |
0.9 |
0.6 |
1.2 |
1.0 |
|
B'RANGYA |
1.9 |
1.2 |
1.3 |
2.0 |
1.8 |
2.2 |
1.1 |
|
B'KWANGA |
1.1 |
1.6 |
1.4 |
1.4 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
1.1 |
|
TOTAL |
4.4 |
5.2 |
5.2 |
5.7 |
4.7 |
7.0 |
3.8 |
Although the analysis of self-realisation was revealing in the three pilot studies there was clearly a need to determine a more concrete impact. One key challenge was to see whether this self-realisation had produced a concrete impact on the learners' actual participation in community organisations. This was perhaps ambitious given the short time frame but it was felt to be worth exploring to see if any tendencies were emerging. A longer term evaluation of these programmes would be additionally revealing to determine the sustainability of these tendencies.
EL SALVADOR
In El Salvador, where one of the major objectives of the programme was to strengthen community organisations, this became a central focus. Community organisations in Usulutan included for example: village councils, cooperatives, school PTAs, church groups, sports groups, women's groups, credit committees and health committees. A sample was taken of 36 learners from 7 literacy circles where the REFLECT method had been effectively applied. They were asked detailed questions about their participation in different organisations before and after the REFLECT circle. The results were as follows:
· 80% of learners said that they were now members (or attended meetings) of community organisations which they were not before the REFLECT literacy programme.· 77% of learners said that they were now actively involved in decision making in those organisations which they did not feel they were before the REFLECT literacy programme.
· 61% of learners said that they had now acquired formal positions of responsibility in those organisations which they did not hold before the REFLECT literacy programme (and in general those who had done so had assumed more than one position).
These results are corroborated by local leaders (representatives from the community councils - "junta directivas") 18 of whom were interviewed. More than 70% said that the literacy circles had significantly increased levels of participation in community organisations or cooperatives) and 50% said that the circles had helped to "renew the leadership" of these organisations.
Interviews with three sectoral coordinators of COMUS (in the health, production and organisation sectors) further emphasise this impact. All of them said that the REFLECT circles had significantly helped them in promoting their work (people who had been learners were now more organised and more active - and their literacy skills were of practical value).
Community elections used to be held by hand vote.
Another observable change has been that now the elections for community councils and committees are held mostly by secret ballot (rather than by a hand vote at a meeting which was the norm before and which had various limitations, not least peer pressure from existing leaders for people to re-elect them). This has helped to democratise the community organisations and would not have been feasible prior to the literacy programme.
These results are striking, even more so when compared with the Control Group (the wider CIAZO literacy programme) where CIAZO's own trainers and advisers say there is rarely any significant impact on participation in other community affairs. Only one control group actually constructed this matrix - and there were no changes in community participation at all.
The reasons for this impact were discussed extensively by the evaluation team and various factors were considered to have been important. The new self confidence of the learners is clearly one factor as is the new respect that they receive from other people in the community. The level of detailed analysis of local problems which they undertook in the REFLECT circles must also have played a part in prompting them to become more active. Last but by no means least, the learners now have the basic literacy and numeracy skills which they require in order to assume formal positions.
In becoming more active in local affairs and assuming these new positions the learners will, in most cases, be required to use their literacy and numeracy skills in real situations (perhaps not on a daily basis, but certainly regularly and on an ongoing basis). This will help the learners to (see the value of, and) consolidate their literacy and numeracy skills - which is likely to mean that few will loose their skills through disuse. It will be interesting to document this is the medium term.
This close and dramatic inter-relationship between literacy and participation is perhaps one of the strongest arguments for the REFLECT approach.
As a final note on community participation it is important to consider the role of the facilitators. The REFLECT facilitators have been particularly active in the democratisation of COMUS itself. COMUS is planning to make itself accountable to the communities where it works by having community representatives sit on a "board of trustees" which will review the strategic direction of COMUS and approve plans and budgets. The literacy facilitators were the main activists in establishing meetings to set this process in motion. Interestingly this began to cause some tension within the present leadership of COMUS who initiated the democratisation process thinking that they knew who would be on the board (the traditional local leaders) but who have now found that communities are electing a new generation of leaders (either the literacy facilitators or the learners themselves). This has caused some unease as the COMUS leadership no longer feels fully in control of the process they initiated. There have even been accusations that the COMUS education promoters are organising a coup against the COMUS leadership.
UGANDA
In contrast to El Salvador very few learners have taken on formal positions of responsibility in community organisations. This may be because there is not the same culture of "organisation" as there is in the politicised communities of Usulutan. It may also be a question of time. The evaluation took place after just one year and there were no Resistance Council elections during that period.
However, the quality of community participation has been reported to have improved considerably. RCs have reported better attendance at village meetings, and a greater willingness to take part in development activities suggested by themselves. There is also a larger pool of people able to take on secretary's duties because they can sign their name on a cheque. Members of different village groups now see the importance of keeping records, minutes etc (which were rarely kept properly before). Over time, this must lead to increased accountability and transparency as everyone can check whether records are being properly kept.
One area of definite impact on developing new community leaders has been with the Parish Councils (established with two elected women from each village who are responsible for a budget devolved from ACTIONAID). Many of the women elected on to these councils were not literate and thus attended REFLECT circles. They are now able to manage money, record decisions and analyse local problems much more systematically than before. The REFLECT circles have also helped to ensure that these Councillors are accountable to the communities who elected them, consulting with the literacy circles and explaining (and having to defend) their decisions. In the future these practices should be widespread in all groups which will increase the democratisation of the communities. There is every likelihood that women who are parish councillors (and others from the literacy circles) will in future look to use their skills within the RC structure which has previously been very male dominated.
The significance of these changes in Bundibugyo should not be under-estimated. Previous to the period of the project it was very unusual for a woman to speak out before a mixed group of women and men. They were locked in a "culture of silence"; forbidden by tradition to express themselves. Now women speak freely in many group settings in church or the village meeting. The starting point has been the discussions in the literacy circles. Several women commented to the evaluation team that they are now able to organise their thoughts and prepare notes for what they wish to say in meetings - a practice in which they take great pride.
Again it is important to consider the facilitators themselves. Both formally and informally, they have already taken leadership roles (religious, school management committee etc.), and many express political ambitions for the next RC elections. Indications so far of their commitment to the welfare of the whole community show that their increased role will improve the quality of community life still more.
BANGLADESH
In the context of Bhola Island it is unrealistic to expect the women in REFLECT circles to have assumed active roles in community organisations. Other than their own shomitis, women are completely excluded from all existing organisations whether formal or informal. This will not change overnight. However, the seeds of change in the longer term have been planted with the REFLECT process. The increased confidence and active participation of women within the circles opens up new possibilities. The impact on resource management (section 4.6.4) is analysed later in this report and there are clear indications that women's position within existing structures is shifting as a result of the REFLECT process. In the short term the realistic focus is on greater involvement in household level decisions (rather than community decisions) and there is significant evidence of that shift taking place as outlined in the section on gender roles (section 4.6.5).
As well as studying participation in community organisations the evaluators in Uganda and El Salvador were keen to know whether the discussion and analysis of local problems within the literacy circles had directly led to concrete actions to contribute to local development (even in the limited timeframe of the pilot projects).
EL SALVADOR
In order to ensure that the actions identified by participants were organically linked to the REFLECT circle (rather than being the product of other community development initiatives) the evaluators took the different Units from the manual as the starting point. Learners were asked to explain the maps and matrices they produced, identifying what problems they had discussed, the solutions they had found and whether they had agreed concrete actions. Where they had identified actions the evaluators asked whether the actions had been carried out, what they were and who had participated. Four communities were taken as a detailed sample: La Pita, Quesera, Las Conchas and Joya de Pilar. This information is consolidated below:
|
|
action agreed |
action done |
Number of participants |
|
|
circle |
Others |
|||
|
household map |
3 |
3 |
17 |
47 |
|
nat. resource map |
6 |
5 |
12 |
0 |
|
human resource map |
2 |
1 |
5 |
0 |
|
agricultural map |
3 |
2 |
13 |
53 |
|
land tenancy map |
1 |
1 |
7 |
0 |
|
rainfall calendar |
1 |
1 |
6 |
0 |
|
agricultural cal. |
4 |
3 |
15 |
5 |
|
TOTAL: |
20 |
16 |
75 |
105 |
Some Units generated more than one action. The actions actually undertaken included: repairing local roads, constructing grain stores, tree and medicinal plant nurseries, organic fertilisers, terracing and other soil conservation methods, planting of fruit trees etc. Most of the actions did not require external help.
Ovilio, the literacy promoter standing in a garden of medicinal plants and herbs.
Many actions have also been initiated by the other circles, for example:
· Basic grain stores constructed in Los Rios, Jobalitos y Loma Pacha.· Literacy shelters constructed in Galingagua, La Pena y Los Rios.
· Furniture for literacy circle made by learners in Jobalito, La Brena, La Pita, Las Conchas.
· Repairing of roads in El Carmen
· Specific training courses organised by learners on production issues in El Carmen, la Pena, La Pita, Galingagua.
· Specific training on health issues organised by learners in Jobalito, la Pena, Zungano, Los Rios.
· Local mobilisation for drinking water in Cerro Verde, El Zungano y El Carmen.
· Medicinal plant nurseries in La Pena and El Zungano.
· Soil conservation group established and active in El Carmen.
· Vegetable demonstration plot in Los Rios.
· Organic fertiliser project in El Zungano.
· Social events organised by learners in Joya de Pilar, La Pita, Los Rios, El Coroz, Cerro Verde, Las Conchas.
· Local campaign for increasing school enrolment (leading for example to 6 children in Galingagua attending school for first time).
The same type of table could not be constructed with control groups (structured around graphics). However, eighteen learners interviewed from control groups were asked whether there were any local actions generated by their literacy circles and only two responded positively, mentioning only "clean up of rubbish". CIAZO advisers commented that this kind of mobilisation is very rare in their other literacy circles - the discussion in their circles simply does not reach a point where local actions are considered let alone undertaken.
This level of mobilisation may in part relate to the work of other COMUS personnel promoting sectoral development programmes in the communities though it is significant that the table above involved learners relating the origin of actions to specific maps or calendars they had constructed. Although the presence of a wider development programme may have facilitated local actions it is certainly a two way process and COMUS personnel themselves pay testimony to the receptiveness and enthusiasm of literacy learners in contrast to other members of the community.
REFLECT participants in the circle in Los Rios.
Most actions noted above have not involved other community members and have tended to be on a fairly small scale. The reasons given for this normally related to either a lack of financial resources for larger actions or problems in coordination with the community councils. Existing community leaders were not always active in supporting the literacy circles. Although two-thirds of leaders said they had visited the literacy circles in their community, most had only visited once or twice and there was not a close or regular contact. Proposals for local actions discussed within literacy circles were not often taken on by the people who could give them a "status" or authority and thereby mobilise people behind them. Addressing this in future could lead to an even more significant impact (eg if regular monthly meetings between learners and community leaders were instigated -or if learners were more prepared to present their ideas to community assemblies). It is interesting to speculate that maybe the frustration felt by some learners with the local leaders was a factor in pushing them to stand for elected positions themselves.
UGANDA
"We are the wahanuli" (the expert discussers)
The table below consolidates information collected in Uganda in a similar way to El Salvador. It represents information from the sample of 20 REFLECT circles showing what percentage of circles had undertaken a local development action as a result of each Unit and giving examples of those actions.
All the groups in the sample had undertaken at least one joint action (in addition to numerous individual initiatives), most commonly starting a tree nursery, organising meetings on family planning or starting a school for younger children. Most groups have undertaken three or more actions. The fact that each Unit has generated so much local change may explain the fact that some circles have covered just ten units in one year (and may indeed be the basis for recommending that facilitators go slowly with units).
Some REFLECT circles have played a leading role in mobilising the whole community around a village project. This has always been in cases where the Resistance Council has been very much in sympathy with the literacy class; (especially where the facilitator is on the RC1). Such village projects have included digging ditches for the laying of water pipes (in conjunction with the NGO, World Harvest); re-grading of roads; starting a small market to attract trade; planting trees; building a health unit, and building a primary school.
|
UNIT |
TITLE |
UNIT DONE |
ACTION PLAN |
ACTION DONE |
ACTION SUCCESS |
COMMENTS |
|
1 |
Natural Resources |
100% |
100% |
88% |
83% |
Tree planting |
|
2 |
Human Resources |
96% |
96% |
75% |
75% |
Agricultural work |
|
3 |
Household Map |
100% |
100% |
71% |
67% |
Family planning & Attitudes (polygamy) |
|
4 |
Mobility Map |
79% |
67% |
67% |
67% |
Children's educ. Re-grading roads |
|
5 |
Ideal Futures Map |
100% |
100% |
75% |
58% |
Infrastructure |
|
6 |
Rainfall Calendar |
100% |
100% |
92% |
92% |
Terracing |
|
7&8 |
Agric. & Gender |
100% |
100% |
100% |
96% |
Gender roles & Crop Spacing/Timing |
|
9 |
Hungry Season |
88% |
88% |
83% |
83% |
Crop diversity and stores. |
1. Participants construct a household map on the ground.
The most overwhelming evidence of the growth in capacity for united action has been in the plethora of activities which learners have started in small groups. These include income-generating activities such as pig rearing, rabbit rearing and growing chillis for sale, as well as working together in agriculture. In the latter area, for example, women in some literacy groups have formed labour teams so that they rotate around members' shambas for greater efficiency. This can help with tasks such as weeding and harvesting.
As well as economic activities, there have been social changes which have depended on collective agreement. For example, in many circles learners made joint decisions not to distribute too much of their harvest to relatives and friends; a practice respected by tradition, but one which contributes to the length of the Hungry Season. This is clearly not a change which an individual could make, because they would face damaging criticism.
The REFLECT process seems to fit very easily with the forums for decision making already existing, and with "traditional" ways of pooling knowledge and expertise in Bundibugyo. For whatever reason, these traditional forms seem to have lost their key role in helping the community (particularly the youth) to adapt to current challenges and problems. REFLECT has proved successful as a channel of communication between different types of people and between generations. The view of learners was that they were learning from each other, and also reactivating useful knowledge within themselves. Thus they could solve many problems independently of external help, and in a sustainable way.
Learners themselves emphasised that all these complex processes were brought together through the medium of literacy. Drawing maps and calendars, and writing about the same subject crystallised decisions made and provided a permanent record of shared information. This systematised knowledge was the essential factor for collective action; it is accessible and understood by all.
All of the collective actions outlined above could be classified as internal empowerment within the literacy class, because to a large extent they do not involve loss of power or privilege by any other group. Learners have certainly not reached the stage where their increased income or organising power is a perceivable threat to the better off. The question of external empowerment in relation to those social and economic forces within the Ugandan context that help create and enforce poverty, remains for future evaluations to determine. It was observed, however, that learners were trying to demand their rights as citizens by making requests for services from central government representatives; thus strengthening the process of democracy even when not meeting with much response. This has applied to Health, Forestry, and Water Departments. The negative side of this is that frustration may result, and learners become depressed about the possibility of fundamental change taking place.
In the Ugandan Control Group there were also some examples of local actions mentioned by learners covering agricultural work (spacing of banana trees, mulching of the ground) and health (home hygiene measures, child growth monitoring, balanced diets). However, these actions were also being promoted by other ACTIONAID initiatives locally (training programmes/ extension workers etc) and it was difficult to determine how directly they were linked to the literacy programme. It appeared to the evaluation team (which included the coordinator of the Control Group literacy programme) that there was not an organic link and that the actions were more likely the result of other well planned, appropriate ACTIONAID inputs. ACTIONAID has been working in Mityana for eight years and has many other programmes (whereas in Bundibugyo the REFLECT circles were the entry point activity).
The learners in the control groups did not seem to have developed tools for generating independent actions. This was emphasised by the practice of making home visits to "check up" on the learners.
Had they done what they had been told in class? Again this was a contrast to the REFLECT circles where the learners decided on the actions and were thus self-motivated.
BANGLADESH
As with the issue of community participation, the objectives of the literacy programme in Bangladesh were not to empower women for taking community level actions. Nevertheless there was one striking example of a shomiti (Centre J1203) where the women collected together to build a new tube well. They did not link this decision to a specific Unit but to the general level of awareness that they had developed through a number of discussions in their centre (see health section).
The women wrote to ACTIONAID requesting a tube well and had to raise 1, 000 Taka between them to contribute to the cost of digging it. In Bhola such a well takes 3 days and nights of continual digging and involves going 900 feet down (to reach below the salt water). When the evaluators visited the Centre the tube well was on its second day of construction and there was a great feeling of imminent achievement.
Although community level action was a focus for El Salvador and (to some extent) Uganda, it was also important to consider actions taken at the household level to improve the management of local resources. This covered both immediate economic livelihoods and the natural resources (or environment) upon which people depend. This section aims to bring together some of the evidence from the three evaluations which deal with the impact of the REFLECT circles on improving local resource management.
BANGLADESH
There were limitations to the potential impact of the REFLECT centres in the economic sphere in Bangladesh as all learners were women and most were not in a decision-making role in relation to the core income or activities of their households. However, some changes were identified by the evaluation team which indicate progress in a positive direction.
The construction of natural resource maps of their villages, indicating sources of water and wood, led some women to identify and address economic problems relating to drought. Fish cultivation in ponds is an important income generating activity for some women but during droughts ponds exposed to the sun often dry up completely and the fish die. To help prevent this in future the women have planted more trees around their ponds. Moreover in one circle the construction of the map prompted women to start fish cultivation. One woman commented: "when we did the map and we had drawn our ponds some of the women put a fish in their ponds and I wanted to put a fish in mine but I don't have any so I couldn't. Straight away I decided that I would." In this centre four women reported that they had started fish cultivation in their ponds after the discussion of this map.
The agricultural map involved women identifying land use in their village. This produced discussions on the advantages and disadvantages of different crops, sometimes drawing on the opinion of men from outside the circle. In some cases this prompted women to see the need to change or diversify the crops they were growing and some persuaded their families to start to plant new crops such as jute, chili and vegetables.
The Food Availability Calendar was intended to identify major foodstuffs consumed and their relative availability through the year. It was said to be useful by many women for helping them to plan for shortages - which they can now anticipate more clearly. Their response has been to collectively agree to save more money in the shomiti at times when they have extra funds - so that they can draw on them at times of need.
The Income and Expenditure Calendar started with the drawing of a tree showing different sources of income as roots and different types of expenditure as branches. Each was then broken down into detail and analysed for variations through the year. Again this was said to have been helpful in making the women more aware of future needs and the importance of planning ahead. "Now we are able to anticipate problems" specified one woman in JI193. In all Centres the discussion of this calendar revealed that expenditure is much higher than income. Two main solutions were identified in JI195: diversifying income and reducing family size. All learners in this circle are young women and reported a strong change in attitude, particularly to family size. Several women in the Centre said they had discussed this with their husbands with some success.
The Basic Commodities calendar analysed major commodities purchased and the typical trends in their prices through a year. It produced a strong response in several Centres. A woman in CU109 commented: "Before we just suffered when prices changed but now we think in advance. When the rice price is low, if we have money or can take a loan we buy rice and store it for when the price is higher". This sentiment was echoed in CU115 where women said that they now plan much better and buy raw materials for their mat-making in bulk quantities when the prices are low. A similar approach to bulk buying of cheap goods like oil, ginger and pulses (which was reported as a new phenomenon which had not occurred to them before) was mentioned in other circles. In JI193 one woman commented: "Before we had no organised way of doing this - we knew prices changed but before we were victims of the changes and we did not really think about what we could do until we discussed it openly".
The calendar seems to have helped women begin a shift from being re-active to being pro-active. Perhaps the fact that women do not go to the market is significant here. They are less able to compare prices normally and thus easily become victims of travelling salesmen (hawkers) who can convince them that their prices are fair when they are not. It is significant that 76% of women interviewed said that the literacy centre had been very helpful in enabling them to negotiate more effectively with hawkers. Their level of knowledge of prices and price trends has undoubtedly increased.
A matrix showing sources and uses of credit was clearly very relevant to the women in Bhola. Discussion tended to focus on the advantages and disadvantages of different sources. For example disadvantages identified by JI195 included: moneylenders charge high interest, banks are inaccessible, relatives have no money and the shomiti only gives small loans. A common conclusion seemed to be that mentioned by women in JI193: that they would avoid taking money from local money-lenders if at all possible and would only do so in an emergency and after exhausting other alternatives.
Discussing this matrix women in JI207 said that they used their first shomiti loans just for daily expenses and did not think of investing them for profitable activities. Now they are much more aware and this has led to concrete change in their use of shomiti loans. For example, with their last loans one woman bought rice when it was cheap and stored it, another bought coconuts when they were cheap to make oil, another helped her husband establish a small tea stall and another invested in poultry. Before joining the literacy class these four women reported that they had never used their loans productively.
The Preference Matrix on the use of Loans had a similar effect as the Credit matrix in JI207. The learners reported that until doing this matrix most of them had just spent loans to reinforce daily spending - to have extra cash in hard times - rather than investing in specific activities. Since then they are specifically investing each loan in productive activities. Three women used their last loan for investing in seeds and pesticides, one for salt production, one for poultry, one for contributing to buying a cow and one woman put funds towards a rickshaw for her husband. All the women in the centre reported a 100% change in their attitude towards and usage of shomiti loans. The following Unit on Projections on Loan Use helped to consolidate some of this. A woman in VU109 commented: "It helped us decide what times of the year were best for taking out loans for different activities"
Through the process of constructing these different maps, calendars and matrices the women seem to have developed considerable skills in utilising local resources, particularly through diversifying sources of income and advance planning. As a result, women now appear to be more involved in decisions on the use of the loans they receive through the shomiti. Previously many had simply given the money to their husbands or fathers and had little or no say in how the money was used. As one woman in J1203 commented: "Now our husbands actively ask our opinion when we give them the money and most of the time they respect what we suggest."
The same woman also added: "Most of our loans are now used profitably but we need larger loans if we are to make a real difference."
In J1209 the women commented that although they are doing the same range of activities as before they are now doing them better. There are not many new alternatives but at least now they can decide when is a good time of year to start mat making and when it is good for fish cultivation. "We make fewer mistakes and have more success".
The increased ability to manage their own savings and credit books should contribute to making this change sustainable. Over 61% of the women said they had read their pass books and many women were now keeping their own household accounts. Their literacy skills also gave them access to information. More than one third said that they had read agricultural leaflets/ posters and 39% had read fertiliser instructions.
Owing to a lack of time no substantial research was done with the control groups to determine whether there had been any impact in the area of resource management. However, the evidence available and comments from local staff suggested a negligible outcome. Although the primer lessons attempted to address certain themes relating to resource management there were rarely any detailed discussions in the control groups. This limited the scope for linking the learning of literacy to any wider changes.
UGANDA
The sense that it was possible to manage resources of the primary environment whether in the home or in the shamba (farming land), came over very strongly from the learners in Bundibugyo. A number of personal and community actions were generated through the discussions which have contributed to improved resource management -and most required no technical assistance or funding from outside.
The natural resource map, for example, led to discussions on high population density and the impact that this is having on diminishing natural resources. Most circles identified local deforestation as a serious problem, resulting from the cutting of trees for fuel (which, though necessary, has led to soil erosion). In order replenish the resource almost all groups decided to start nursery beds for young trees, grown from local seedlings. Some groups planted trees strategically for fuel whilst others focused more on planting to prevent soil erosion on an individual basis. In Bundibuturo II for example, 300 trees were planted by learners, and 300 more planted by others in the village. When some of the young trees started dying in the intense heat, requests were made for technical support to the Forestry Department - who were less than cooperative, requesting larger payments to offer advice, which led to some frustration.
The Human Resources Map produced some interesting initiatives which could enhance the local economy. For example learners talked about diversifying crops, introducing soya beans and starting up small livestock projects, rearing goats. pigs and chickens - both on an individual basis and in groups, particularly small groups of women.
More than any other Unit the Household by Household Map led to discussions focused on population growth. Having plotted all the
Household map. Each REFLECT circle developed it's own style - compare with the map on page 61.
households in the village, learners identified the number of men, women, boys and girls in each compound. Attention was focussed on the problems of dividing up the available land between grown up children. Learners were alarmed about the dangers of fragmentation and landlessness in the future. This produced a demand for family planning. Female learners in many cases called community meetings (to ensure their husbands were also there) and invited personnel from the Family Planning Clinic in Bundibugyo to facilitate discussions and explain the options available. More remote communities had greater difficulty in inviting external facilitators and in subsequently accessing services but some held discussions with local men anyway as a first step. However, the lack of local knowledge was sometimes striking. In a graduation ceremony in one village a role play was performed which showed "separate beds" as the only way to prevent pregnancy!
An additional, related issue, which arose in constructing this map was polygamy which, though not widespread is also not uncommon in the area. The disadvantages of one man living with several wives and all their children in one place, emerged strongly in most discussions. It puts pressure on land, and there may be a stimulus to having more children in the rivalry between co-wives. The attitudinal change produced by some of these discussions could be significant.
The agricultural units (eg Rainfall Calendar, Agricultural Calendar, Crop Preference Matrix, Hungry Season Calendar) had a cumulative effect on improving local resource management. Learners repeatedly testified to changing their agricultural practices, such as:
· changing their planting times (in response to local climate change);· spacing their crops more carefully (rather than random scattering of seeds);
· planting thick bands of grass on slopes to prevent erosion;
· planting productive trees such as avocado;
· changing the crops they grow to solve their food security problem with year-round crops such as yams, cassava and soya beans (in preference to cash crops like rice);
· building stores and granaries eg 18 out of 20 learners of Bugarama Class improvised with old drums and pots (rather than spending money on construction);
· changing traditional practices which undermine food security such as the donating of excess produce at harvest time to friends and relatives (which many circles agreed no longer benefitted the community but merely increased hunger later in the year.
All the outcomes described above were as a result of pooling knowledge and did not require any external funding or technical input. These outcomes are outward indications of what appeared to be an initial recognition by learners of the importance of what might be called "Primary Environmental Care".
EL SALVADOR
There was also considerable evidence in El Salvador that the REFLECT process had impacted on the learners' personal lives and their individual behaviour. Where it proved difficult to organise in order to resolve problems as a group, the focused discussions in the circles produced practical changes on an individual level. Over 40% of learners said that the experience of learning in the circle had led to concrete changes in their personal work. The changes that they mentioned in relation to agriculture included:
· not burning the land (which can reduce fertility and lead to soil erosion on slopes);· planting new crops (eg tomato, chile, radish, sesame seed);
· the use of new seed varieties and better local selection of seeds from the harvest;
· better storage of crops (so that they can be sold for a better price);
· the use of better planting methods (more careful spacing of crops for optimum productivity);
· the use of organic fertilisers and pesticides;
· the analysis of local soils to determine their suitability for different crops and the most appropriate fertilisers;· small scale tree planting for protection of soils and fruit production;
· the construction of bunds on hill-sides to conserve soils.
These changes are particularly significant when one considers that historically many of the learners were landless labourers who had occupied abandoned land during the war. At that time many had cut down coffee to grow maize and beans -which had produced serious problems with soil erosion. Learning how to farm land for themselves was, for some, a new experience. Many found that the best way to learn was from each other - in a structured and locally focused debate.
Many learners also commented on the value of knowledge they had acquired of the recent peace agreements relating to land reform. It is interesting to note that the percentage of settlements of land disputes in the COMUS area by May 1995 was around 70%, much higher than the national average (30%). This is something which is closely related to the wider work of COMUS though the discussions in the literacy circles certainly played a role in reinforcing that work. By helping to increase local people's access to land, and helping them to focus on how best to make that land productive, the REFLECT circles have had a huge impact on the local economy and future resource management.
Specific testimonies help to illustrate this. For example, Elias in El Zungano commented: "In the past I knew something about soil conservation methods but I had never actually done anything.
Now I do because we have discussed it and all recognise the importance. Now I can think in the long term rather than just think about the next harvest."
Lydia, the facilitator in Joya de Pilar said: "I am now using the calendars I taught in the literacy circle to plan the income and costs of my family. I have shared most of the discussions we had with my family and so now we are planting many new crops and the signs are good."
Juan Rodriguez the facilitator in La Pita clarified how these changes were linked to the REFLECT approach: "I am very concerned to protect the value of the land and nature's resources. This motivates me in the literacy class as I am able to address important themes with a group of people from the community. People need a space to be able to address the issues and come to their own judgments. We have to break the old patronal relations. It is not easy but it must be worth trying. These are the reasons why education is important and why just reading and writing is not enough. With this method we can start with local analysis and come up with our own recommendations for action. There also clear reasons for writing words as they help to define or describe or label the graphics."
BANGLADESH
One of the objectives of the Bangladesh REFLECT programme was to increase women's status. However, by being exclusively focused on women there was a concern that the impact on gender roles might be limited - as men might not be brought on board. The resistance of some men to women's attendance has already been noted and there was a danger that men's attitudes might also undermine some of the outcomes hoped for from the process.
Participants in REFLECT circle JI195
However, in practice the maps and matrices produced in the circles by women helped to open up some discussion with husbands and fathers. For example, in JI195 women reported both discussing them in advance with husbands and fathers (to get useful information to include on them) and then sharing the results. As a result the men saw the value of their work. This was particularly important in this Centre as three women had been forced to permanently drop out owing to pressure from their husbands. The other women were able to keep going by being transparent and involving local men, convincing them that the literacy centre could be of benefit to everyone. In several circles the husbands of learners were reported to be very impressed with the maps and matrices, regarding them as a resource for the village, contributing to learning and even reportedly influencing local decisions by men.
This involvement of men in the wider process meant that the REFLECT circles were able to contribute to wider change. In the section on Resource Management the increasing role of women in decisions on loan use has already been noted. This was put very realistically by one woman from JI193: "now we are more involved in decisions than before. Before we just took a loan and gave the money to our husbands. Our husbands still take the money but now they ask us what we think because they know that we have learnt things and may have some useful ideas."
This was echoed by another women who said that now they can participate in decisions because: "now we have knowledge and opinions which we lacked before."
For women whose lives were largely restricted to their homestead, the maps and matrices offered insight into a wider world. The evaluators were surprised that even something as simple as a household map was regarded in some cases as being of real practical value. Sharing information on where everyone lived and how to get there was of genuine use to some women who had previously not been to some parts of their own village. It prompted many to visit other learners in their homes and to gain more confidence to visit relatives. One woman commented: "We are more confident to go out of the homestead now and even out of the village to visit relatives or if we need to go to the doctor. But we still avoid the market place and don't go to the cinema."
Only in one centre (JI203) did women say that their mobility had increased to the extent of going to the market place. This was said to be still rare but until recently it had been unthinkable - and even disallowed by their husbands or fathers. The change was put down in part to the changing views of men who have seen their progress in the REFLECT Centre and have grown to respect women more. One woman added: "The only problem now is we spend so long in the literacy circles that we have no time to go out."
In one circle (JI209) the discussion of the household map went much further: "we talked a lot about the size of our families which is not something we talked about before [taboo] and now we are clear that we want small families -just two children each because we have no land for them". It is yet to be seen if the women succeed in controlling the size of their families but they were very confident and outspoken about it to the evaluators.
More direct attempts to address gender roles were sometimes less successful. For example the Gender Workload Calendar was designed to look at different activities done by women and by men and the relative workload for each activity in each month. It was designed as a starting point for analysing gender roles. However, it rarely achieved this. Although often laid out in great detail (JI203 identified 24 activities) there was little evidence of broad discussion. Often it was said that both men and women work very hard and if pushed the women said that it was both unnecessary and unfeasible to change any of the roles. There were a couple of exceptions such as in JI195 where women in the Centre reported that they discussed the calendar with their husbands and fathers and that they specifically asked for help at times when they were attending classes. Some of their husbands are now helping with cooking so the women can attend classes.
UGANDA
The impact of the REFLECT methodology on gender roles in society was far reaching in Bundibugyo in a very short time. The evaluators identified four main causes. One was the specific analysis of gender workloads (eg in the calendar), another was the attitude of the facilitators towards women learners, thirdly (and most important) was the process of self realisation which has been especially revolutionary for women learners and lastly was a wider development programme by ACTIONAID in Bundibugyo which revealed a high level of gender awareness.
The conclusion of female and male learners from the Gender Workload Calendar was that a responsible husband should take on some of the tasks, previously assigned to his wives, because women have too much to do. As well as doing extensive domestic labour, women also plant, weed, scare birds and harvest crops (whereas men only clear land and cut down trees). The result of very open discussion in the circles was that many men have started assisting wives in collecting water and fuel, and sometimes in weeding, house mudding, sweeping and cleaning. Several male facilitators claimed to be bathing their young children. Surprisingly, these remarkable changes appeared to emerge from consensus rather than confrontation. Men accepted that women were working harder and acknowledged that more equitable sharing of workloads would make the family unit as a whole more productive and efficient.
The evaluators were keen to determine whether there were other changes that would meet strategic gender needs of women. Two key aspects were selected: household decision-making, and intra-household distribution of income.
Women learners reported a greater willingness amongst men to talk about how money was spent. In one case, a woman reported it as an improvement that her husband had told her openly that he had spent all their coffee money on alcohol, and seemed regretful. Previously she would have had to find this out for herself. Learners attributed improved communications between husband and wife to lessons learned in literacy class about taking control of their lives and planning for the future, whether this was how to increase the family income or how to control family size. Women showed more confidence in their opinions, and men showed more respect for their abilities. Of course, this was especially true when wives and husbands were studying together in the same class.
Other women learners told how they were entering the part of the household compound reserved for all-male decision making. They were joining these family meetings and speaking out about how money should be spent, which children should go to school, which crops to plant and when, whether to add buildings to the compound and so on. It was reported that the experience of speaking before men (especially older men) in the literacy class had helped women lose their fear of doing this, at the same time as making it more socially acceptable.
Discussion in the REFLECT circles in Uganda had a significant impact on gender roles.
As far as distribution of household income was concerned, a significant number of female learners reported that increased confidence combined with numeracy skills was an excellent formula for demanding the full fruits of their labour. Coffee, for example, is commonly grown and tended by different wives, but taken to market and sold by the husband as the owner of the trees. Learners said that previously the husband had decided his share of the money, as well as the share for each wife, as he saw fit; according to whim. Now women learners were calculating their exact share based on the known price, and were very determined in demanding their rights.
The evaluation team looked for the negative aspect of these changes taking place so quickly, but found (through cross checking with different groups) no general resentment from men. This might be because in most cases, men had agreed to help with work or to discuss with their wives willingly, rather than as a result of conflict. Only two men were observed to be resentful. One old man watching a class with his wives within, complained that now they would be able to read his secret letters. Another male leader had forced his first wife out of the house because she had become too vocal within the family.
One significant factor which may have contributed to these changes taking place non-conflictively is the role of the predominantly male facilitators. Many facilitators took a lead in sharing work with their wives, and in trying to space their children. They thus acted as valuable role models for all the men in their community, by not being afraid to step outside convention, or of being laughed at by other men as "unmanly".
The Ugandan Control Group, in Mityana, offered a contrast to the REFLECT process in Bundibugyo. These seemed to be almost no evidence of any impact on gender roles. Indeed the evaluators observed:
"Actions taken in the area of gender relations seemed on further probing to consist of the women being "better" wives, and finding even cleverer strategies for coping with their husbands' unhelpful or abusive behaviour. There was no discussion of a system which was unfair on women, so in contrast to Bundibugyo, more compromise by women was recommended rather than by men".
EL SALVADOR
The team from CIAZO, COMUS and ACTIONAID who developed REFLECT in El Salvador was exclusively male. When the possibility of designing units to address gender issues was raised, the representatives of COMUS and CIAZO both reacted negatively, emphasising that their concern was with community development, with organising and uniting communities, not dividing them. These attitudes appear to be rooted in perceptions of past gender based work in the area as having been confrontational. Despite extensive discussions these views prevailed and gender awareness was both not integrated into Units in the REFLECT manual (and in some respects was actively resisted) and not evident in the implementation of the programme. Most facilitators were male and the promotional campaign in the communities made no specific attempt to reach women (with the consequence that most learners were men). There was no gender dimension in the training programme or in the monitoring. In such a context it can not be surprising that the impact on gender roles in El Salvador was almost non existent.
The original design of the evaluation methodology had included the collection of gender disaggregated statistics. Although this was done for the literacy and numeracy results (where no significant differences were observed, with women achieving equally with men) this was not done for the statistics relating to empowerment. The remarkable outcomes from the Salvadorean programme in relation to community participation and action were therefore not broken down by gender. This was finally acknowledged as a serious limitation by the evaluation team but it was too late to collect new data.
Only one notable observation was made during the evaluation regarding the participation of women. In the few literacy circles where facilitators were female the learners were predominantly female but where facilitators were male so were most of the learners. Where a male facilitator dropped out and was replaced by a women there was a tendency for male learners to drop out. This correlation emphasises the urgency of increasing gender awareness in the future. would take to cover - and progress through the Units was slower than expected. As has been seen, this was not a problem for the acquisition of literacy and numeracy skills as each Unit led to more detailed work than was anticipated. However, it did mean that certain themes were not addressed within the initial literacy phase. In future, manuals might be better designed with fewer Units covering a full range of themes.
A final note on gender
The example of El Salvador is significant in that it suggests that there is nothing inherent in the REFLECT methodology which will yield the outcomes and impact on gender roles seen in Uganda and Bangladesh. It all depends on how the methodology is interpreted and applied. In a context where the planning and implementing team is gender aware the methodology offers considerable scope for addressing gender issues and initiating a process of change. But where this initial interest in gender issues is absent (or, as in El Salvador, is actively resisted) the outcomes may be very different.
The REFLECT process, by ensuring a curriculum which is relevant to the local area (without focusing just on male themes) and by giving everyone, including women, space to participate (and find a voice for themselves: something of which women in many parts of the world are deprived) in a non-threatening environment is likely to facilitate a process of self-realisation of women which will impact on gender roles.
Women in Bangladesh have benefited from a women-only space to develop these skills whereas in Uganda the women learners have benefited from the experience of speaking in front of men in mixed groups. A learner driven literacy process which builds self esteem is likely to be of particular use to women whose self esteem is typically low or undermined.
Of the three REFLECT programmes the only one to address health issues in detail was Bangladesh. Units were designed to explore health issues in Uganda and El Salvador but most circles had not reached those Units by the time of the evaluation. This was in part a result of the fact that the manuals were designed not knowing how long each Unit
BANGLADESH
A review of comments made by learners on Units relevant to health is the most revealing way of understanding the outcomes and impact of the REFLECT circles on health.
The Natural Resource Map led to many discussions about the use of different water sources in their immediate environment. Where tubewells are available they are generally used for drinking water but many women still wash themselves and their dishes and clothes in ponds. Women in three circles commented that they have now changed their habits and use tube well water for all human uses and pond water only for animals. The clearing of stagnant ponds was also an issue that regularly came up. Some had requested training and advice on how to clear such ponds but often the women felt powerless to improve the condition of the ponds because they were owned by other people.
Health calendars were constructed by all circles, usually identifying a range of between six and ten different local illnesses, monitoring their relative occurrence at different times of the year. This led to discussions about why the illnesses occur at different rates through the year and how they could be prevented. Several groups then constructed a related matrix to look at the causes of the major illnesses.
The Curative Matrix constructed by most circles analysed a range of between 6 and 12 illnesses, considering both mild and severe cases of each. Women had plotted what they would do in each case (go to a doctor, go to a hospital, get medicines, take herbal cures, pray etc), producing a very detailed exchange of knowledge and opinions. One woman in JI209 declared: "we have shared our experiences and now we have knowledge which will serve us for the rest of our lives." These women regarded the completed matrix as a set of guidelines on what they should do in the case of different illnesses - and the recommendations in each case are very wise.
A Herbal Medicine Matrix (see overleaf) was also constructed, involving women collecting leaves from all the local herbs they use for curing different illnesses, drawing them and then identifying which herbs were useful for which illness. In some cases this discussion would include details of how to prepare each herb and in what quantities to use it. In several centres women commented that previously each woman in the group knew a little but by sharing their knowledge they had all learnt something new. It was said in CU109 to have revitalised interest in herbal remedies for mild cases of different illnesses (as previously they had been losing faith in traditional or home remedies and were becoming dependent on modern medicines which they often could not afford). In two centres (JI209 and JI203) the women discussed with their parents and grandparents before they constructed the matrix: "so that we collected the knowledge of our forefathers and shared it. We have all learnt a lot which will be very useful"
Having discussed health issues through calendars and matrices, the literacy centres then constructed a health and hygiene map which aimed to consolidate what they had discussed into a review of their own village. In general the maps included details of contaminated/ stagnant/ clean ponds, tube wells, open and closed latrines, rubbish heaps, location of key medicinal plants, houses of health promoters or traditional healers etc.
In CUD109 the women placed all the latrines in the village on the map and specifically identified one which was badly placed and was contaminating a collective water source. As a result they put pressure on the person involved (not a shomiti member) and helped them to build a water-sealed latrine. They commented triumphantly: "There are no more open latrines in our village."
In some villages it proved more difficult to resolve problems, particularly where open latrines or contaminated ponds were owned by powerful landowners or other people in the community with whom their relations were not strong. However, in JI195 the women identified many open latrines and proceeded to show their map to husbands, fathers and other women, discussing the problems. At first the response from other was that most could not afford to pay out the 250 taka needed to buy a for a sealed latrine from ACTIONAID. The women therefore contacted ACTIONAID and arranged for people to pay in instalments. As a result nine women in the community are now building sealed latrines.
In Centre JI207 mapping focused the women's attention on the problem of accumulated rubbish from the nearby market and as a result of their discussions they now routinely organise to bury it.
A further Unit in the Bhola manual involved discussion of immunisation based around the vaccination cards which most women already had at home for their children. Only one Centre (JI195) had reached this Unit (most were just about to do it at the time of the evaluation). Women in this centre reported that a few children in the village were not vaccinated before - mainly because their mothers did not trust vaccinations. They said that after discussing immunisation in the REFLECT centre they then talked to the women concerned and some have already gone to get their children immunised.
It is important also to consider the impact of increased literacy on health. Looking back at the statistics on literate habits some positive signs can be seen with 56% of women having said that they had read health leaflets or posters and 53% saying that they had read instructions on medicines or prescriptions (though one woman complained that she could not read her prescription because it had been written in an illegible scrawl by the doctor).
The accumulated effect of these different Units appears to have been very considerable. It has already been noted that one circle mobilised to build a tube well following their discussions. The 59 women interviewed by the evaluators identified knowledge of health issues as one of the most valuable things they had gained from the literacy circle. A total of 75% said that their Centre had been very helpful for acquiring new knowledge of health matters (and 19% said it had been of some help).
Often the women compared the literacy centre to previous training they had received on health issues through the Shomiti Member Training. In JI193 one woman said: "We went to Shomiti member training on health but did not learn much. It didn't seem very relevant to us and we used to get confused. Making our own maps and calendars we learnt a lot more and it seems a lot more important."
Similarly a woman in JI195 said: "We learnt something of health in the shomiti before but it was not very practical and felt like a lot of rules. With making the maps it was a lot more helpful and we understand these things a lot better."
UGANDA
Although most literacy circles did not reach the health Units in the Uganda pilot, some literacy circles in Bundibugyo decided to bring forward Units on health when there was a serious outbreak of cholera and dysentery in the area. This was an extremely positive example of learners taking control of their own curriculum and showed the advantages of a flexible approach.
The circles that decided to cover health units reported very positive action points emerging from their discussions. These mainly concerned the prevention of diarrhoea, cholera and the new (fatal) strain of dysentery. Most learners decided to change the management of the latrine and the kitchen in the home. For example, they separated the kitchen from the living area and they dug latrine pits, covered them, and worked on training children to use the latrines. There was an emphasis on washing before cooking, and after using the latrine. No technical assistance from external sources had been needed.
EL SALVADOR
Although the literacy circles did not reach the stage of the manual when they would explicitly address health issues, some outcomes on health were noted from other discussions. The human resource maps often identified a wide range of people with knowledge and skills in the health field. These included health promoters, traditional healers, people knowledgeable about herbs and many "health masseurs" (sobadoras). Discussions about the relative skills and value of these people were often very lively with learners exchanging anecdotes and opinions. The natural resource maps also brought up issues surrounding medicinal plants and herbs, helping to focus attention on the increasing difficulties that people had in finding certain plants. In three communities herbs gardens were established with the support of COMUS's wider Natural Medicine programme.
There is a serious shortage of research on the inter-relationship between adult literacy and children's education (see, for example, Barton 1994). Since Jomtien many governments have invested in primary education and have not invested equally in adult literacy. Since it is parents who have to pay for their children's education (even when it is supposedly free there are indirect costs, and increasingly there are also direct costs) the attitude of parents to education must be important. Parents are also key to creating a literate home environment (and wider community) to reinforce learning in school - and the involvement of parents in school committees is increasingly seen as a key to improving the quality and local accountability of primary schools.
The lack of research on the impact of adult literacy programmes on children's education is thus both surprising and worrying. The evaluation of the REFLECT pilots was seen as an opportunity to contribute to this debate - particularly in Uganda where parents are expected to pay many of the direct costs of their children's education.
UGANDA
In Bundibugyo the formal education sector has been poorly resourced by central government (even in comparison to other parts of Uganda) and there is some resistance to schools by local people who dislike the fact that their children are taught in Rutoro. The REFLECT programme was the first adult literacy programme in Bundibugyo of any significant scale and the evaluators were therefore keen to determine the impact it had on attitudes to children's education.
In practice the evaluators found that there had been a significant impact. Not only had attitudes to education significantly changed, but parents, within the space of one year were taking practical steps to educate their children. This was seen by significant changes in three respects:
· an increase in enrolment of children in government primary schools,
· increased attendance at other pre-existing schools, and
· the establishment of new non formal education centres.
1. Government Primary Schools
The table below shows the changes in enrolment in government schools fed by families where some of the adult members are REFLECT learners. The five schools near REFLECT classes have been compared with fourteen schools in the same sub-county with no local REFLECT literacy groups. It reveals a 22% increase in enrolment in schools within the catchment area of REFLECT circles compared to just a 4% increase in schools with no REFLECT circles but with a similar catchment area in other respects.
Comparison of the Increase in Enrolment in Government Primary Schools by REFLECT, and those not Fed by REFLECT.
|
REFLECT SCHOOLS (5) |
Boys |
Girls |
Total |
|
1994 |
675 |
350 |
1025 |
|
1995 |
830 |
419 |
1249 |
|
Rate of Increase % |
23 |
20 |
22 |
|
OTHER SCHOOLS (14) |
Boys |
Girls |
Total |
|
1994 |
2810 |
1670 |
4480 |
|
1995 |
2883 |
1763 |
4646 |
|
Rate of Increase % |
2 |
5 |
4 |
No factors were identified to account for the difference between these schools other than the presence of the REFLECT circles. The rate of increase summarised on this table was uniform from Primary I to Primary VII, (although the numbers enrolled are much greater in Primary I - IV) and this was true for all schools, not just the REFLECT five. Despite the very positive influence on increasing overall enrolment, it should be noted that there was not a specifically positive effect on the enrolment of more girls (whose enrolment increased more or less in the same proportion as boys).
2. Other Pre-existing Schools
Faced with inadequate government provision some communities have established primary schools for themselves, without Ministry of Education recognition (though this was often being sought). These schools received a fresh impetus from the REFLECT programme with parents sending their children in large numbers. Cases where participation has increased dramatically were Budikuliya: 256 - 360; Mutogo: 103 - 260, and Hakitara: 35 -120. There appeared to be a particular increase in girls' attendance at these schools. The REFLECT facilitators had often become active as leaders on the Management Committees of these schools (and in some cases of the government schools).
3 New Nursery Schools/ Non-Formal Education Centres.
Another development was the starting of new NFE Centres (or "nursery schools" as they were called locally) for younger children using the REFLECT literacy shelter, the same blackboard and some of the same teaching materials. Usually parents paid the REFLECT facilitator to teach their children. Although called Nursery Schools, they contained all younger children up to 9 or 10 who had no previous chance to go to school. Nine classes in the sample of 24 (ie more than one third) had started nursery schools, having as many as 60 or 70 children in each. It was interesting to note that facilitators were trying out REFLECT methods with the children as an alternative to their more dimly remembered primary education model.
The combination of these three outcomes represents a substantial impact, in the short term, on children's education in Bundibugyo. The creation of new schools in one third of sampled communities, in the space of just over one year, is particularly notable.
Although such changes are almost certainly the product of the whole REFLECT process many circles said that the new initiatives emerged specifically from discussions surrounding the construction of mobility maps. These maps involved identifying the different places people went to and the reasons for going (eg for markets, employment, health care, visiting relatives etc). They were designed to promote discussion of isolation which had been identified as a key problem in the initial research by ACTIONAID in Bundibugyo. The discussions which emerged often focussed on the education of children which was felt to be the only real way to lessen the isolation of the area - because children could migrate to work (and be visited by family members) or get their education and then come back to take salaried jobs in the area. This would mean communication of the most useful kind with the rest of Uganda. The Bwamba have always experienced people from the Toro ethnic group in positions of responsibility in offices and schools, and in positions of political authority. The REFLECT circles enabled them to address how this could be overcome through investing in the future.
It remains to be seen how sustained the increased enrolment will be and whether it will lead to improvements in achievement. One positive sign is that, although the language of instruction is still officially Rutoro the Ministry of Education are now considering the recognition of Lubwisi in the early years and informally it is already widely accepted. This is likely to make parents feel more positive about school education for their children. Moreover, many REFLECT learners are already taking an active interest eg through participating in parent teachers associations. Their experience of the REFLECT methodology is likely to give them a sense of good teaching practice and they will look very closely at the teacher's behaviour, having the confidence to criticise when they think something is wrong.
BANGLADESH
In Bhola most women identified helping their children as one of the primary motivations to learn literacy. The only Unit directly relevant here was the Education Matrix which led to some discussions though in most cases children were already enrolled in school. In a handful of cases children have been enrolled for the first time in school since the REFLECT circles. However, a better indicator might be greater regularity of attendance at school and this was indicated verbally by many women though it proved too complex to measure statistically.
Interestingly the most common thing which women have actually read since the REFLECT programme is their children's school books (71% of women have done so). Many women commented that they try to help their children who are attending school. Although unable to help children who have reached higher grades they now feel able to help those in the first three grades.
When asked how their husbands felt about their participation in the circle the responses from one community (CU115) were particularly revealing. Their husbands are actively supportive of their wives in the REFLECT Centre because they feel that their wives will then be able to help their children. This was commented as something that was becoming an essential part of the "role of being a good wife."
EL SALVADOR
The evaluation of REFLECT in El Salvador did not address the impact on the education of children in any detail. However, in some communities it did emerge as an issue for local organisation, with many learners assuming positions of responsibility on PTAs. In other communities like El Carmen, there is no existing school and the REFLECT circles acted as a focal point for discussion about how to establish one. Although no new schools were actually started up, some steps were taken to put pressure on the local Ministry of Education to increase their coverage. Sadly this failed to solicit a response as the education budget was said to be already over-stretched just to cover existing provision.
In each of the three pilot programmes there has been substantial evidence that a process of empowerment is underway. What this means has emerged as different in each of the three programmes though there are certain common currents. In all cases something we have called "self-realisation" has served as this basis for change - with learners gaining in self confidence and in the respect that they command from others. Through exchanging experiences in structured discussions about their own immediate environment the learners have acquired new knowledge and skills in problem solving which serve them in their daily lives. Through constructing calendars and matrices they have strengthened their skills in planning and projection - which have contributed to a more effective management of scarce local resources.
In Uganda and El Salvador discussion in the literacy circles has led directly to collective action at a community level and contributed (particularly in El Salvador) to increased participation in (and the democratisation of) community organisations. There are indications of change in respect of gender roles in Bangladesh and Uganda. Where circles have addressed health issues the outcomes have also been impressive. The wider impact on children's education has been particularly notable in Uganda with some positive signs in Bangladesh and El Salvador.
The evaluators in all three countries were surprised at the range of outcomes that could be identified within such a short time frame (a year or eighteen months) from the start of the literacy programmes. Evaluation over a longer time frame might reveal further (or different) evidence of empowerment.
Certainly it is too early to say how sustained some of these outcomes may be. In some cases positive changes may be reversed and people may fall back into old habits (in the same way as people may lose their literacy skills) once the focus of ongoing literacy circles has gone and the momentum of change has slowed. A lack of resources to follow up new ideas might lead to frustration. In other cases, the processes of change that have been initiated might encounter opposition from vested interests and these may obstruct progress. Given all these and other factors, the process of empowerment can only be said to have begun and is still far from being consolidated. Further research is needed over a longer time frame.
Despite the limitations outlined above, the initial indications are positive. The REFLECT circles have achieved outcomes which have been largely absent from the control groups circles. There was very little evidence that learners in the control groups made any significant progress towards "empowerment" either at an individual or group level. In most cases the control group programmes focussed almost exclusively on literacy and numeracy construed in the narrowest sense. Despite aiming to promote wider change, the primer based programmes rarely achieved this. There was little evidence of discussion having taken place and where changes were observed they were not organically linked to the literacy process (but rather had origins in separate local development initiatives).
The failure of a primer-based approach to empower people is echoed in the review of the government's literacy project in Uganda (October 1995), which observed a number of weaknesses:
· "There is no creative and active involvement of learners."· "The problem-solving approach recommended in the curriculum is not reflected in the primer. Answers are given, not worked out by learners themselves."
· "Topics and messages do not address the wider and more complex needs of learners eg analysis of sources of credit, agricultural price patterns, gender roles in society."
· "Approach is unlikely to mobilise communities which are disorganised, under severe economic pressure etc."
· "The time for discussion is short; leaving no structured opportunities for peer learning."
This contrast between the outcomes of the REFLECT circles and the control groups warrants further exploration. It is worth revisiting the great claims made for literacy in the opening paragraph of the Introduction - which are later called into question or dismissed as myths. Does literacy help develop logical abilities, increase political awareness, strengthen organisations, solve problems, increase productivity, reduce infant mortality, limit population growth and democratise countries? The evidence from this first two years of research would suggest that the outcomes of adult literacy are not inherent but rather depend on what happens within the learning process. Literacy is not, in itself, empowering but the literacy process can be interwoven with an empowering process such that the two can mutually reinforce each other.
The REFLECT Mother Manual which is being published alongside this research report attempts to pull together the best practice from the three pilot programmes. It is therefore inappropriate to try to do that same process within a short section of this report. There are however, one or two points which it is worth highlighting here and these emerge particularly from where weaknesses in the methodology have been revealed.
In El Salvador we have seen that, like all methodologies, the REFLECT methodology can be distorted. The worst case of this was the teacher in COMUS who prepared the maps and matrices at home so that the literacy class would learn quicker! Within any practice of PRA, the process should be seen as more important than the product. With REFLECT, where the process is entirely internal to the community, an emphasis on product is even less appropriate.
Another key learning point in El Salvador was the need for adequately educated facilitators. Facilitators with just three grades of primary education behind them struggled with the process. This does not mean that high academic achievers are required. However, some basic literacy level (perhaps equivalent to sixth grade primary education) might be necessary for the facilitators to be able to use the approach effectively. This should not normally be an obstacle (most literacy programmes are able to recruit facilitators at this level, even if they are volunteers) and should probably never be an absolute criteria because some facilitators with third grade education may be more skilled than some with sixth or tenth grade. Basic literacy in the literacy facilitators is particularly needed for them to read the manual, prepare lessons and benefit fully from the training. Nevertheless, every effort should be made to simplify manuals (complex, technical language in the manuals was a problem in both Bangladesh and El Salvador).
One methodological learning point which emerges from all three pilot programmes concerns the use of visual cards. The cards produced by local artists in all three pilots were far too elaborate and detailed - making it hard to use them in practice because the facilitators were not able to copy them simply. The cards should be very simple outline pictures (almost symbols) which can be copied within a few seconds by someone who is not good at drawing. It would even be possible to do away with visual cards and to work purely with a reference list of (equally simple) pictures in the manual. If visual cards are used they must be colour coded and numbered so as to be easily found when needed. This is an area where practice in future projects can significantly improve on the experience of the pilot projects. Further details are available in the Mother Manual.
In reviewing training in the three pilots the universal agreement was that the focus should be put on ongoing training. The initial training period may be between ten or twenty days, with a strong focus on field practice of PRA - and discussion by trainees of how the resulting maps and matrices can be used for introducing literacy and numeracy. The facilitators manual is itself a means of ongoing support. However, regular contact between facilitators is essential (in groups of between ten and thirty - depending on the scale) - where they can review their experiences over previous weeks and prepare for the coming weeks. These meetings may be fortnightly at first and then monthly once they become more established. This appears to be good practice in any literacy programme - but is not always followed. The facilitators should be given as much control as possible over the agenda of the ongoing training so that they can mould it to their needs (indeed it is possible for this ongoing training to function without external facilitation as was the case in Uganda).
In relation to the scope of the manuals, one common criticism of the three pilot programmes (in retrospect) would be that they sought to cover too many Units. The result was that they went into too much detail on certain themes (eg agriculture) and did not even cover some other themes (eg health) within the initial time frame. This occurred partly because initially it had been assumed that each Unit would be covered more quickly. Whilst some cumulative depth of analysis is clearly desirable it might be better to "mix and match" a little more - so that everyone covers a range of core themes and then goes back and addresses each theme in more detail.
One additional criticism of all three manuals is that they were originally designed having key words for all Units, even late on in the course. In practice this was often overlooked and facilitators developed more creative reading and writing based on graphics produced by learners after the initial Units. But in other classes, facilitators followed the manuals religiously and were still picking out key words and even breaking them into syllables long after the learners had acquired basic literacy skills. This is clearly problematic. There is a case for key words and syllabic breakdown in the first few Units,
but once the basic concept (that words are made up of syllables) is clear the emphasis must be on whole words and (progressively) phrases. In all three pilots key words were also pre-chosen whereas in projects now starting up the REFLECT approach some are leaving the choice of words entirely to learners in each centre (with the facilitator keeping a note on syllables covered).
It is only through field practice that observations like the above can be made. The methodology which is now emerging and which is consolidated in the REFLECT Mother Manual has learnt both from the mistakes and successes of the pilots and should in future lead to projects which are more effective than the original three pilots.
An analysis of cost effectiveness has to consider not only the literacy and numeracy outcomes but also the broader outcomes of the programme on people's quality of life. It has not been realistic for ACTIONAID, in such a short time, to undertake detailed cost benefit analysis which incorporates all these wider impacts on development. The section on empowerment is a guide to the kind of changes which might take place in the long term and which would have to be woven into a statistical cost benefit analysis.
In the context of Bangladesh, we have seen some impact in the economic sphere (particularly in relation to improved planning and better use of loans), in the health sphere (an increase in awareness and practical knowledge as well as concrete actions eg latrines/ tube well) and in relation to children's education (indications of more regular attendance and more support at home). Women's status has generally been improved. This impact is not just the result of the "product" of the literacy circles but the result of the "process" (participation and active discussion of local issues within the REFLECT Centres).
All the above factors need to be considered when looking at the cost of the REFLECT programme in relation to other approaches to adult literacy. If the REFLECT process produces benefits which other literacy programmes cannot then we should not simply compare cost with cost.
Costs per year for one REFLECT centre with 15 learners (in Taka)
7, 800 Facilitator's honorarium
1, 200 Facilitator's training allowance
350 Facilitator's bag/umbrella
375 Facilitator's Manual and visual cards
50 Facilitator's notebook
250 Large manila sheets (50)
640 Marker pens (20)
375 Learner's notebooks
500 Blackboard and chalk
160 Pens and pencils
100 Erasers and sharpeners
11, 800 = 786 taka per learner = approx £12 ($18) per learner.
The Unit cost of the Bhola REFLECT programme per learner can thus be said to be 786 taka (approx £12) over a year.
To put this in context, a 1992 study by CAMPE (M.H. Rahman and S.D. Khan, quoted in NFE Project Final Report, CEC/ADB 1994) estimated that costs per learner of 530 taka were normal. This estimate appears however to have been for just a six month period (the REFLECT costs for six months would be 486 taka per learner) and it is not clear whether it includes facilitators honorarium or training. Given these factors and inflation since 1992, the cost of 786 taka appears very reasonable.
It should be noted that the costs of the Bhola programme are by no means indicative of costs which all REFLECT programmes involve. The payment of facilitators is by far the largest component of the costs and this is not something automatically required by the REFLECT method. The pilot REFLECT programme in El Salvador worked with volunteer facilitators and in the next phase of REFLECT in Bangladesh at least one of the projects will work with volunteers.
Another factor to be considered is the economy of scale. The costs of producing the manual and visual cards would be much reduced if done for a larger programme and bulk purchase of other items would also reduce costs.
It should be noted that the costs calculated above are based on 15 learners per centre. The size of the circles in Bhola was based on the pre-existing shomitis (of 15 women). In future Shomitis will be larger (minimum 30 members) so this will change. In Uganda the REFLECT circles tend to have 25 or 30 learners so this should present no problem. Large circles would significantly reduce the cost per learner (eg if there were 25 learners per centre the average cost would be 472 taka or £7.50 per learner).
The average cost of the existing Bhola programme of £12 per learner per year becomes a particularly good investment when one considers the effectiveness of the REFLECT method. Compared to the World Bank estimate that on average only 25% of learners successfully complete adult literacy courses about 60% of learners successfully completed the REFLECT programme. The evaluators also suggest that there is a high likelihood that they will retain their skills (which the World Bank estimates only happens to 50% of successful learners).
There is no doubt that if the goal of a literacy programme is just to teach learners to sign their names then REFLECT is not the cheapest option. But if the goal is sustained literacy and an impact on wider development then REFLECT is a low cost approach.
Finally, it is worth making a brief comparison to children's education. The Unit cost of primary schooling in Bangladesh is $10 about a year - but with a five year cycle ($50) and only a 24% success rate (ie about $200 per successful learner). Whilst primary schooling has many other functions than teaching literacy, the same can also be said for the REFLECT process which, in comparison, comes very cheap.
The costs involved in the REFLECT programme are itemised below, considering both direct and indirect costs.
£2,960 = Salary of Literacy Coordinator
£7,314= Facilitators allowances
£1, 866 = Field Workers salaries for training/monitoring
£1,014= Training Costs (materials/ food etc)
£604= 65 manuals (£4,651 preparing/printing 500 manuals)
£772 = Designing and Printing Visual cards
£87 = Photocopying
£1,071 = blackboards
£171 = Chalk/Pencils
£1, 833 = manila paper (100 reams)
£220 = thick marker pens
£333 = facilitator's notebooks
£1, 100 = Learners' exercise books.
£44 = tape/ drawing pins
£80 = termite killer
£19, 469 = TOTAL (for one year)
Analysing the above we might regard the first three items as indirect costs or overheads (salaries and allowances for facilitators - which are optional in that other programmes have used volunteers) and the rest of the items as direct costs for the functioning of the literacy circles. Thus:
£ 7, 329 Direct costs
£12, 140 Indirect costs
If we look at this per centre (there were 65 centres) then we see that the costs were:
£122.75 direct costs per centre
£186.76 indirect costs per centre
£309.51 total costs per centre
If this is then looked at per learner (an average of 27 learners enrolled in each centre) then we see:
£4.54 direct costs per learner
£6.92 indirect costs per learner
£11.46 total costs per learner
Finally we can look at the cost per successful learner (a 69% success rate: on average in each centre 19 learners graduated as literate):
£6.46 direct costs per successful learner
£9.82 indirect costs per successful learner
£16.28 total costs per successful learner
However, enrolled learners who did not graduate did sometimes leave having learnt basic literacy. If we assume that this is the case for 50% then the average direct cost per successful learner is £5.50 (and total costs per successful learner are £13.87). To put this in context the recent review of the government's pilot literacy programme in Uganda ("A Process Review of Functional Literacy Project in Uganda" October 1995) noted:
"At the time of Process Review the average estimated expenditure for 15, 741 enrolled learners is $67.2. The figure is expected to rise to over $70 [about £47] by the end of the nine months when learners are expected to become literate."
One of the main costs in the Ugandan government programme has been on preparing, translating and printing primers. Based on these costs, the REFLECT approach is definitely a low cost approach (about one quarter of the cost per learner).
The following costs were involved in the literacy programme in COMUS:
£640 Printing visual cards
£300 Preparing and printing manual
£330 manila paper/ card (1, 700 sheets)
£200 thick pens
£2, 060 training of facilitators
£200 exercise books
£133 pens/pencils
£150 facilitators notebooks
£800 other equipment: furniture/ lamps
£2, 450 Education coordinator (50%)
£2, 366 Education Promoter
£9, 629
£3, 816 = direct costs
£5, 813 = overheads
If we look at this per centre (there were 14 centres) then we see that the costs were:
£272.57 direct costs per centre
£415.21 indirect costs per centre
£687.78 total costs per centre
If this is then looked at per learner (an average of 20 learners enrolled in each centre) then we see:
£13.60 direct costs per learner
£20.76 indirect costs per learner
£34.36 total costs per learner
Finally we can look at the cost per successful learner (a 65% success rate in circles where the method was applied)
£20.92 direct costs per successful learner
£31.93 indirect costs per successful learner
£52.85 total costs per successful learner
This is a relatively high cost compared to the other two pilot programmes and reflects the small scale of the programme in a country where the costs of living are high. Whilst Bangladesh was also a small scale programme the salary and printing costs were low. It is rather ironic that the one country where volunteer facilitators were used turns out to be the most expensive of the three pilot programmes. There would be a massive reduction in costs if the programme was to function on a larger scale.
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CASE STUDY: LAS CONCHAS - EL SALVADOR Las Conchas is high up in the hills in an area which, up until the late 1970s was a huge coffee plantation. During the civil war it was abandoned owing to conflict. The coffee became overgrown as did the buildings of the old hacienda. In 1991 a group of landless families from elsewhere in Usulutan came to the area in a desperate search for land. In the past some of them has worked on harvests for the past landowner in the area, receiving a pittance. They cut down some of the coffee and started planting maize and beans for subsistence. In 1992 these families formalised themselves into a cooperative and started to clear the brambles which had over-run the hacienda. With the peace accords and agrarian reform, by 1993 they were able to gain legal recognition and titles to 200 manzanas of the land. Part of this has been divided up between the 35 families in the cooperative, giving each 2 manzanas, with the rest being left as coffee to be worked collectively. Much of the coffee is still overgrown and un-productive. There are many serious problems still faced by the community, perhaps most notably, soil erosion (on the slopes) and the shortage of water. They have to walk long distances (up to an hour) to collect water. The literacy circle opened in early 1994 and rapidly became a focus for many discussions of local issues. Through construction of a natural resource map they were able to have an active and focussed discussion of the water problem. They organised to seek and obtain funds from Asay, a national NGO. The literacy circle then acted as a focus for planning daily work groups of 4 people for 3 months to build four large water tanks. They are now awaiting the rains to fill the tanks. They are also planning to rehabilitate an abandoned well, concreting the walls and cleaning it out. The household map produced a focused discussion on access to the community which led to mobilisation to repair the main access road. The agricultural map produced discussions around the theme of soil erosion. The circle recognised the problems associated with cutting down coffee on slopes to plant maize and beans - gulleys have started to appear and the soil is being lost. As a result coffee is no longer being cut down in the hilly areas and strategies to save the soil through bands and the planting of strips of pineapple across the slopes have begun. Organic fertiliser and the planting of tomatoes are other actions that have emerged from the circle. As a product of the literacy circle, many of the learners are now more active in community organisations, even taking up formal positions of responsibility. One learner is now treasurer for the cooperative, one is president of the credit committee, one is coordinator of the women's group, one is active in the education committee and one is active in a new committee on soil conservation. These are all new positions taken up in the past year, since the start of the literacy programme, and represents a dramatic democratisation of the community. Many problems still remain. There is no school in the area for the 20 children of school age and there is little prospect of the Ministry of Education providing one in the near future for so few people. The nearest school is over an hour's walk away. In this context, teaching the adults to read and write is vital to enable them to pass on skills to their children. |
