4.1 Governmental provision
4.2 Non-governmental organisations (NGO's)
Since Independence a number of government Ministries, agencies, international donors and NGO's (both local and international) have assisted in the training of the youth. Provision has taken a number of forms, financial and technical aid to facilitate training, the provision of practical training, or by providing funds to assist youth groups start their own businesses to mention a few examples. However, in reviewing the literature what becomes apparent is that studies and reports have tended to focus on the work of that particular organisation. Also, after precursory discussions with officials from a number of Ministries, it became apparent that there was a need to clearly define the key participants and their activities so that future planning might be more effective.
In attempting to establish who-does-what. Ministries, agencies and organisations were classified as either governmental or non-governmental. This classification was necessary to illustrate the complex interrelationship which was found to exist between the various institutions. However, within these two classifications there were found to be varying numbers of institutions engaged in supporting the training of the youth and therefore, within each it became necessary to further sub-divide them.
Governmental institutions include the Office of the Prime Minister and First Vice-President and four separate Ministries; Home Affairs, Labour and Youth Development, Education and Culture and finally, Community Development Women and Children.
The Office of the Prime Minister was instrumental in the defining the content of the Human Resource Deployment Act (1983). This led to the creation of Nguvu kazi self-employed programmes that were originally implemented by the Ministry of Local Government and
Regional Administrators. The Office of the Prime Minister sees its role as overseeing the operations of all the other government Ministries and therefore does not have a specific policy towards the youth.
However, concerned at the growing number of local NGO's operating in the county, the Office carried out an audit of NGO's in 1992 and compiled a directory. This enabled the government to quantify NGO activities but, did not classify their activities. Since then the Office has established the Tanzania Association of Non-Governmental Organisations (TANGO) to formally register all NGO's. This has caused concern among local NGO's that by setting up this administrative body, the government were attempting to monitor and control their activities. This is denied, by the government who claim that their intention is to strengthen the relationship between the NGO's and themselves and therefore be in a better position to assist them. 'With proper arrangements the government could entrust them with some of its responsibilities which are rather too many for it' was how a senior administrator in the Office justified the need for TANGO.
The Prime Ministers Office still maintains a responsibility for the activities of international donors and liaises directly with the Treasury and Ministry of Home Affairs on their behalf.
The Ministries of, Community Development Women and Children, Education and Culture and Labour and Youth Development each have portfolio's that include the provision of different types of youth training and will be considered in depth as case studies in chapter 6.
The Ministry of Community Development Women and Children (formerly the Ministry of Local Government, Community Development, Co-operatives and Marketing) has since 1990 been responsible for organising and co-ordinating the activities of Folk Development Colleges (FDC's), prior to this they had been the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture. They were originally perceived as institutions for training rural people for useful service to their communities, to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of productive labour and in so doing improve the quality of life for all. Introduced in 1975, by 1992 there were 52 FDC's operating on the mainland, but none on Zanzibar and government figures indicate that just under 130 thousand people have received training, of which 63.5% (about 82,500) were male and 36.5% (47,400) female. A range of training programmes are offered through short and long courses, including the NVTD Trade Test grade III. Current capacity is estimated to be 3,600 and enrolment is over 70% (2,600) with a drop-out rate of about 15% (UTR/MLYD 1993). However, there are current moves towards decentralisation of the FDC's.
FDC's are participating in a project called 'Skills development for Self-Reliance' a programme conducted by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) in co-operation with the Ministry of Labour and Youth Development and the Ministry of Education and Culture. The aim of the project is to provide unemployed youths with vocational skills to assist them gain employment. The project is based on a tightly structured programme which begins with an assessment of needs at village level, provides both vocational and business training, assists trainees to gain venture capital and monitors the progress of the youths during the first years of business.
The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for primary and secondary education and the management of Post Primary Technical Centres (PPTC's). The current school population is estimated to be just over 5.1 million, comprised of, about 4.95 million primary pupils and around 170 thousand secondary students. About 85% of primary pupils fail to gain a place at secondary school. Of those that do over half will attend a private (55%) rather than state (45%) secondary school (MEC/MSTHE 1993). Included in the secondary enrolment figures are those for the diversified technical schools that have a combined capacity of just under 3,600 and operate at about 84% with a drop-out rate of less than 15% (UTR/MLYD 1993).
Post Primary Technical Schools (PPTC's) are administered by the Ministry but not funded by them. Conflict over financial responsibility for PPTC's between local and central government has resulted in these institutions operating at about 30% of their intended capacity. The training is for two years in a range of skills (tinsmithy, carpentry etc) with the aim of equipping the trainees with the skills necessary for self-employment. Total capacity is estimated to be 11,000 but enrolment is less than half of this (47%) and the drop-out rate is over 30% (UTR/MLYD 1993).
The Ministry of Labour and Youth Development has a broad portfolio which encompasses five departments, three of which are directly concerned with vocational training and supporting the activities of the youth.
The Division of Training administers and co-ordinates the activities of the nineteen government run Vocational Training Centres (VTC's) and is responsible for registering and inspecting all other training institutions in the country. It is also responsible for administering and assessing the National Trade Tests grades III, II and I. Recently a Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) was established as an autonomous government agency to develop and co-ordinate training within the country both at national and regional levels. Current policy is based on three tenets, decentralisation through the creation of regional boards, the introduction of a training levy payable by all employers with four or more employees and thirdly, the need to adapt VTC's to meet demand driven needs of their locale.
The are currently 19 VTC's that provide training in 34 different trades as the first stage of artisan training. Traditionally, training was based on supply side policies and trainees were placed in formal industries for their in-plant training and later gained full employment in this sector. Retrenchment and the effects of market forces are forcing VTC's to re-orientate and adapt to preparing increasing numbers of their trainees for informal sector employment. Current capacity is just under 3,000 but corporately the system enrols slightly more than this figure, while the drop-out rate is about 25% of this total.
In addition to providing initial training VTC's also operate evening classes to enable artisans to study for the more advanced Trade Tests II and I. The Morogoro Vocational Teachers Training College (MVTTC) prepares qualified artisans for employment as VTC, and NGO trade instructors through a two-year programme and also offers a range of short courses to cater for the needs of formal sector employees (e.g. supervisory courses). The future development plans for the MVTTC include the introduction of a Masters distance learning programme.
The Department of Youth portfolio is to co-ordinate and encourage all youth activities and plans for training in Tanzania. Through the National Youth Council (NYC) the department coordinates its activities with both local and international NGO's, the Centre for Informal Sector Promotion (CISP), Association of Tanzanian Employers and the Trade Unions (ATET), Merino Sisters (Iringa), Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP), OXFAM and the United Nations Volunteers (UNV).
In practical terms the Department organises and manages (and in some cases funds) 1,545 youth groups (just over 21,000 people) situated throughout the mainland that are engaged in activities ranging from animal husbandry, fishing, tinsmithy carpentry etc. When loans are granted (the maximum amount is 200,000 T/sh either to a group or an individual) commercial interest rates of 27.5% for co-operative or group projects and 31% for individuals are charged (1994). However, individuals are preferred as, 'they have been found to be better able to manage loans than groups' recounted an official. The recovery period on loans is dependant on the nature of the enterprise; agricultural loans must be repaid after two seasons, tailoring, carpentry and similar projects after three years and animal husbandry (usually dairy farming) after five years. There are however proposal to change both the maximum size of loan and the recovery period. The principal difficulties experienced by the Department excluding funds is a lack of accurate information about youth activities per se.
The Department of Labour also organises and trains small youth groups through the activities of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), (funded by UNDP). Through the Rural Youth Training and Employment Project (RYTE) the ILO are supporting youths who are developing income-generating projects as a means of becoming self-employed. The youth receive both financial (similar to above) and technical training to prepare them for self-employment and once operating, are monitored during the early stages to support their development. The training lasts about 3 months and includes both technical skills, (e.g. carpentry, tailoring etc.) and business education, (e.g. book-keeping, marketing and project monitoring). The training has been conducted at, FDC's, VTC's, or on-the-job depending on the nature of the project.
So far about 530 young (55% males and 45% females) people have received assistance from 15 mainland regions and Zanzibar. The ILO are also active in providing the training for trainers in FDC's. ILO activities operate independent of all other training agencies in Tanzania.
The Office of the Prime Minister classifies NGO's into local and international Nongovernmental organisations. This will be adopted in the following outline of provision.
Among the organisations that were consulted many were not directly involved in training, however they do provide access to expertise, funding for enterprises or acted as a go-between for international donor agencies.
SIDO the Small Industries Development Organisation is responsible for the creation and coordination of small industrial plants throughout the country. It also acts in an advisory capacity to the Planning Commission on long-term industrial strategies. SIDO centres act as nuclei for training and the production of goods for local consumption. With the trend towards private enterprise it is increasingly attempting to market its consultancy services to small and medium sized formal sector companies. The types of service offered by SIDO are indicated below.
Short courses, are available for which the entrepreneur has to fund unless somebody else is financing it on his/her behalf. SIDO does not finance any courses, but gives advice and where intensive training is necessary then it directs people to approach the Division for National Vocational Training. It encourages the production of items like buckets, crockery and other consumables where the entrepreneur, regardless of age, incurs the expenses and handles the actual production. SIDO conceptualises the idea and becomes concerned more with the viability of the business, i.e. whether or not it makes profit.
Feasibility studies are also undertaken in co-operation with the entrepreneur who has to pay for the consultations. Depending on the type of project or investment this might cost between 20,000 and 50,000 T/sh regardless of the outcome. Studies which are considered to be viable propositions may be financed by SIDO through its own resources, a revolving fund of about 3 billion T/sh, and where they cannot do so, they advise the entrepreneur to approach other financial institutions. Repayment on loans varies between 2 and 5 years and in exceptional cases 7 years, depending on the size of the project.
Another aspect of SIDO's operations are Training-cum-Production Centres that were established under the Ministry of Industries and Trade, to assist rural and urban workers to equip people with the skills necessary for informal sector employment or self-employment. The 10 centres provide short course lasting between 1 and 10 months depending on the nature of the training. The institutional capacity is 265 and enrolment is about 95%.
CISP the Centre for Informal Sector Promotion is principally involved in training youth for small scale production and in entrepreneurial skills and is based in Moshi town. It is an aspect of the ILO/UNDP funded project "Employment Promotion in the Informal Sector" that aims to upgrade the skills of informal sector operators
TACOSODE the Tanzania Council of Social Development works in conjunction with TANGO identifying the activities to be carried out by the NGO's. The degree to which this organisation influences youth training policy is at present unclear.
TYDEF the Tanzania Youth Development Fund was founded in 1987 as a non-governmental and non-profit organisation following consultation between the Trustees, Tanzania Youth Organisation (VIJANA), the Tanzania Women Organisation (UWT), the Government, the Association of Tanzania Employers (ATE), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture, Private individuals, various youth groups and other institutions.
The aims of the foundation was to promote youth employment, support small scale farming and business enterprises, develop youth enterpreneurship and encourage the spirit of self help in rural and urban areas.
EDF the Entrepreneur Development Fund was founded in 1990 by the President Mwinyi to alleviate the economic problems of the youth in the informal sector and to reduce the problem of product scarcity. The objective is to encourage small businesses for Std VII and Form IV students and also to create employment for those suffering from retrenchment. There are at present 120 groups practising a variety of trades ranging from carpentry, shoemaking, tinsmithy to horticulture.
The organisation offers loans to business owners for up to one year at an interest of 20% (1994 rates). This is to enable recipients to develop good financial management and to enable the fund to regenerate. The Fund also is attempting to lease parcels of land to small enterprises and has links with SIDO. Its current policy however is to concentrate its efforts in DSM and Zanzibar only.
CCT the Christian Council of Tanzania acts as a co-ordinating organisation providing education and training though its different dioceses. Many training centres were established in pre-colonial times and their objective is to provide skills training to mainly primary school leavers in crafts to enable them to be self-employed, Many centres are affiliated to NVTD and follow their syllabus. Training usually takes between 1 and 2 years depending on the trade.
There are 58 vocational training centres owned by the church who also run 90 homecraft centres for girls that concentrate on tailoring, cookery and other home economics activities. Most of the VTCs are located in towns and mainly in the headquarters of the diocese but there are a significant number of other types of training centres in rural areas, as country-wide there are 278 in total. The VTC's offer a range of course ranging from carpentry, masonry, mechanics, auto-mechanics, electrical skills, tailoring, agriculture, domestic science, to draughtsmanship and trainees follow the NVTD syllabi. Capacity is estimated at 700 places and enrolment is 95%. In the course of this study visits were made to Catholic, Don Bosco and Lutheran VTC's.
The next group to consider are the World Bank, UN agencies and the international donor community.
INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
World Bank, this organisation has a long history of providing financial assistance for vocational training, beginning in the 1970's with its support for Diversified Technical schools. In 1977, IDA projects began at Mwanza and Tanga VTC's and latterly support has been given to Morogoro National Vocational Teachers Training Centre.
UNDP United Nations Development Programme in 1987 agreed to support training within industry by awarding apprenticeships to youths completing basic vocational training. Funds were allocated to provide technical equipment and the training of local personnel.
UNESCO the United Nations Education and Science Cultural Organisation have no defined policy for vocational training in Tanzania.
UNICEF the United Nations International Childrens Educational Fund this agency through its orientated programmes of health related training is involved in youth training in regard to water and sanitation projects e.g. pit latrines. Another priority area is to raise the income of women to improve the general health of mother and children. Since 1989 they have promoted projects that help these people to generate cash income, and a few have managed to become micro-entrepreneurs by mobilising them into groups and providing basic training in price-setting, accounting, book-keeping, marketing etc. No specific data was available on the number of youth involved in training.
CIDA the Canadian International Development Agency has in the past been involved with the training of technical instructors of VTC's and was instrumental in conjunction with the World Bank in developing the Morogoro Vocational Teachers Training College.
DANIDA the Danish International Development Agency along with SIDA the Swedish International Development Agency are the principal supporters of vocational training in Tanzania. Since the 1970's these two agencies have been instrumental in funding the construction and equipping of a number of VTC's. Currently they are assisting the government implement a programme of reforms to re-orientate VTC's to enable them to adapt to changes in the market-place. DANIDA are also involved in the refurbishment of schools.
GTZ, German Technical Co-operation currently does not support vocational training, but they are considering future involvement in this area.
SIDA the Swedish International Development Agency in addition to assisting in the VTC programme has been active in supporting numerous other developments such as the Distance Teacher training programme, the FDC programme and in providing books and other resource materials for schools.
SNV the Netherlands Development Agency concentrates its resources on supporting rural VTC's especially those operated by the church. The emphasis is on upgrading the technical and organisational skills of administrator's and trainers.
USAID the United States Agency for International Development indirectly enhances some youth training programmes either through funding local NGO's, e.g. TYDEF, or by co-operating in outreach programmes to encourage the development of small scale industries.
The above profile although encompassing the principal players aptly illustrates the diversity of interests in the training of the youth and the level of support available to the young people to either train as artisans and/or become self-employed in the informal sector. In numerical terms however estimates of the total training capacity of those listed amounts to less than 7% of the 380,000 Std VII leavers and provides a stark illustration of the magnitude of the problems facing the youth. The corollary is that the informal sector represents the biggest training provider in the country through on-the-job training.
