1.1 Reading and English in education
1.2 Reading and second language learning
1.3 Outline of research
Although literacy is generally considered necessary for national well-being, and for individual opportunity, it is increasingly the case that in many countries the ability to read in a local language is no longer enough. For stronger global integration, and enhanced individual opportunity, it is not simply the ability to read, but the ability to read in a world language that is important. The world language of choice in many countries is typically English. One may have misgivings at the dominance of English, or indeed, the "English equals education" attitude in many developing countries. One may also question the consistency of education systems which, on the one hand, proclaim the value of child-centredness, while on the other hand employing a language which the vast majority of their children do not understand. However, the hard fact remains that ability in English, especially in reading English, will for the foreseeable future, be a particularly empowering skill in the global village.
"Education for all" implies "reading for all", for reading is not only a skill to be mastered, but also a crucial tool for further learning. Learning to read is necessary in order for reading to learn to take place. This observation, however, begs many questions, such as: What happens if the formal education system tries to teach children to read in English instead of in their first language? What happens if the formal education system tries to teach children to read in both English and their first language? What classroom approaches are to be adopted for first and second reading? Can students learn other subjects in the curriculum effectively through reading in a second language?
The aim of this monograph is to provide information relevant to answering these questions. It describes research that took place in primary schools in two developing countries which operate contrasting policies, Malawi and Zambia. In Malawi the policy1 is to teach through the medium of a major local language, Chichewa, for the first 4 years, with English as a subject; in Zambia on the other hand, the policy is to teach everything through the medium of English from the beginning of year 1, with a local language taught as a subject. Although this report deals with Malawi and Zambia, the findings may be relevant to the teaching and assessment of reading in many comparable developing countries, where the teaching of literacy to large numbers of children in difficult circumstances is an educational necessity, and where primary schooling is, for the great majority, the only formal education and hence the chief avenue to the acquisition of reading.
1 The policy described for both Malawi and Zambia was that in operation at the time of this research.
This paper first describes the methods and classroom approaches to reading in Malawi and Zambia, then reports on reading tests carried out at years 3, 4, 5 and 6 in both English and the respective local languages (Chichewa in Malawi, Nyanja in Zambia) in rural and urban schools. In addition a sample of pupils of differing English reading proficiencies were interviewed, and participated in individual reading investigations. The findings confirm misgivings, expressed, for example, in the 1992 Zambian Ministry report Focus on Learning that for the majority of pupils in primary schools levels of reading in English are inadequate for learning to take place. The report closes with some suggestions as to how improvements might be brought about, while noting that the effect of the suggestions will necessarily be limited by factors outside the classroom, and in particular by the economic conditions of teachers and of pupils' families.
The definition of reading adopted in this monograph is that it is a deliberate process of looking at and understanding written language. We focus here on what might be termed the "basic" level, and examine the extent to which pupils understand relatively simple texts (while acknowledging that the reading process itself is not simple, and that the nature of understanding is contentious). In order to understand a text the reader must bring to bear relevant types of knowledge, among which are:
- knowledge of the language of the text
- knowledge of the relevant script and orthographic conventions
- relevant knowledge of the world (e.g. knowledge appropriate to the topic or cultural context)
Knowing the language of the text is fundamental in helping the learner learn to read. It enables learners to guess at the identity of words with or without using graphic clues and it may also help them guess the meaning of words from context. However, if learners have little knowledge of English, then a careful approach is needed if they are to learn to read successfully in the language. Initial reading approaches employed in the UK assume that the learner already knows the language and accordingly focus upon decoding, taking for granted that the learner will understand what has been decoded. These approaches have to be modified in teaching initial reading of English as a second language.
Second language learning is a process that takes place over time, whether in a formal classroom setting, or an informal out-of-class setting. The extent of learning depends in part on the duration, amount and richness of the input (i.e. what the learner hears or reads), and also the type of language activities in which learners engage - e.g. repeating phrases, listening to the teacher, singing songs, writing stories, etc. (Individual learner factors such as motivation, and also health, will, of course, also affect learning, but they are usually outside the concerns of conventional "educational" projects.) Language learning, especially in its early stages, is not error free, but characterised by deviancies due in to insufficient input, false generalisations, and interference from the mother tongue. At any stage in learning "fossilisation" may occur - in effect, learning ceases, and the learner's language remains at a level below that of fluent users of the language. While there is disagreement on the precise implications of such factors for teaching a second language, there is agreement that the following factors play a role:
(i) teacher's target language proficiency
(ii) appropriacy of materials
(iii) amount of time devoted to the language
(iv) appropriacy of teaching methods
(v) degree of learner motivation
(vi) class size
(vii) provision of general amenities - weather-proof classrooms, desks, drinking water etc.
These factors are further mediated by contextual factors that might be summarised as the congruence of the educational operation with local socio-cultural norms. Such norms would include social values, attitudes towards authority figures and peers, and views concerning appropriate matter for formal education. Education does not take place in a socio-cultural vacuum, and educational approaches which are "transplanted" from one country to another may well fail for lack of appreciation of such differences.
The research on which this monograph is based was carried out in Malawi and Zambia in 1992 and 1994. The principal objective in 1992 was to characterise the teaching of reading in primary schools, and also to assess the reading proficiency of the pupils in English and the local language, namely Chichewa in Malawi and Nyanja in Zambia. A series of classroom observations were carried out, and group reading tests were administered in English and the local language at years 3, 4 and 6 in five schools in each country; in all over 900 pupils were tested. The 1994 research followed this up by testing reading proficiency at year 5, with over 500 pupils in 6 different schools in each country. However, the 1994 research also carried out a more "in-depth" investigation on a sample of high-scoring and low-scoring individuals. They were interviewed on their family background and reading practices, and then read short passages in English and the local language, discussing problems that arose in the reading with Malawian and Zambian research assistants.
